Ancient Egypt, while geographically limited, contained a vast number of cities—some records estimate as many as 20,000— and a remarkably large population. The country was divided into three main regions:
- Upper Egypt (Thebais): The southernmost region.
- Middle Egypt (Heptanomis): Named for its seven districts.
- Lower Egypt: Included the Nile Delta and the land bordering the Red Sea and Mediterranean.
Thebes, the capital of Upper Egypt, was a magnificent metropolis that rivaled the greatest cities of the ancient world. Its hundred gates, mentioned by Homer, earned it the name “Hecatompylos.” Ruins within Thebes (modern-day Said) include well-preserved temples and palaces adorned with countless columns and statues. Of particular interest is a palace with sprawling avenues lined with sphinxes, leading to grand porticoes. This palace boasted a hall supported by 120 massive pillars and numerous obelisks. Paintings throughout the complex retain much of their original color and brilliance. Strabo, an ancient historian, wrote of the legendary statue of Memnon, the remains of which he witnessed.
Memphis served as the capital of Middle Egypt, situated on the west bank of the Nile River. Modern-day Cairo was established across the river and is thought to have succeeded Memphis. Cairo’s castle holds a unique point of interest: Joseph’s Well, a remarkable structure carved deep into the rock with a staircase and an oxen-powered water retrieval system.
Egyptian Monuments
Egypt appeared to take immense pride in constructing impressive monuments. Obelisks—tall, four-sided structures tapering into a pyramid-shaped point and often covered in hieroglyphics—were common throughout the land. Most obelisks originated in Upper Egyptian quarries.
Pyramids—massive structures with square bases and pointed tops—were another Egyptian hallmark. Three pyramids near Memphis were particularly famous and considered some of the world’s seven wonders. The largest was constructed on a rocky base with stones cut into a stepped design. These stones were immense, some reaching thirty feet in length, and were covered in hieroglyphics. The construction project involved a hundred thousand laborers who spent decades quarrying stone and building.
Near Lake Moeris, also known as Arsinoe, stood a remarkable structure called the Labyrinth. This complex wasn’t a single palace but instead a cluster of twelve palaces connected to one another. It contained fifteen hundred rooms arranged around twelve central halls, with walkways and terraces that made the layout deliberately confusing. An equal number of underground rooms beneath the complex served as burial chambers for kings and housed the sacred crocodiles worshipped by the Egyptians. Navigating this maze without a guide and careful precautions was nearly impossible.
King Moeris constructed the artificial Lake Moeris to help manage the unpredictable water levels of the Nile River. The lake spanned seven or eight leagues in circumference and connected to the Nile via a grand canal four leagues long and fifty feet wide. Sluice gates allowed water to be diverted to the lake during times of excess flooding, and later released when the Nile’s flow was low. The Nile’s annual flooding cycle was driven by rainfall in the Ethiopian highlands, beginning in late June and gradually receding by November.
The Egyptians built numerous obelisks and pyramids that testified to the incredible wealth and power of their civilization. These monuments were extraordinary for their size and complexity. Across Egypt, grand temples, colossal statues, elaborate tombs, and sarcophagi continue to inspire awe and wonder with their sheer magnitude.
Shaped like the Greek letter Delta, Lower Egypt was a fertile and prosperous region of the ancient kingdom. This area boasted important cities throughout history such as Heliopolis, Heracleopolis, Sais, Tanis, Canopus, Pelusium, Alexandria, and Nicopolis. The sacred city of Heliopolis was home to a revered temple dedicated to the sun and the worship of the ox Mnevis. Sais housed a temple dedicated to Minerva (Isis).
The rise of the Ptolemies saw the city of Alexandria, founded by Alexander the Great, rival the magnificence of older Egyptian cities. Its strategic location and the Pharos lighthouse, one of the Seven Wonders of the World, made Alexandria an international trading hub of immense importance. The city was also known for its Museum, a center of learning, and its great library.
Egyptian Learning, Religion, and Culture
Ancient writers often regarded Egypt as a distinguished center of knowledge and political thought. Greece, in particular, recognized Egypt as a vital source of arts and sciences. Eminent Greek figures such as Homer, Pythagoras, Plato, Lycurgus, and Solon traveled to Egypt to enhance their education.
Egypt possessed unique customs. For example, a man could not borrow money without offering his father’s body as collateral. Egyptians meticulously embalmed bodies of the deceased, preserving them within their homes. Priests held a privileged position in society, second only to kings, and enjoyed numerous benefits.
The Egyptians were among the first to establish festivals and processions designed to honor their gods. Sacrificial practices varied, but a commonality was the laying of hands on a victim’s head while praying for the diversion of calamities from Egypt.
Egypt is the origin of Pythagoras’s belief in Metempsychosis, the transmigration of souls. Egyptians were highly superstitious, worshipping a multitude of gods of varying degrees. Osiris and Isis, believed to represent the sun and moon, received widespread adoration – a practice likely linked to the rise of idolatry. Furthermore, Egyptians revered many animals like oxen, dogs, wolves, hawks, crocodiles, ibises, and cats.
Among these, Apis the bull (Epaphus to the Greeks) was the most celebrated. Egyptians built opulent temples for him and bestowed extraordinary honors upon him both in life and death. When Apis died, Egypt entered a state of mourning, and his funeral was marked by lavish ceremonies. The Israelites’ worship of the golden calf likely stemmed from their time in Egypt and mirrored their reverence for Apis.
Egyptians’ devotion extended even to plants like pulses and garden roots. Despite their reputation for wisdom, they engaged in what might be considered absurd superstitions. They deified animals and insects, maintained them in temples with extravagant care, and punished those who killed them with death. Embalmed animals and even vegetables like leeks and onions received solemn burial in tombs.
Additional Notes on Egyptian Society:
- Embalming: The Egyptians embalmed deceased bodies using various methods, with the most elaborate reserved for the elite. They filled bodies with spices and perfumes, wrapped them in linen, and encrusted them with exquisite scents. These mummies remain objects of fascination today.
- Military: Egypt maintained a large standing army of native soldiers renowned for their discipline. However, Egypt was largely a peaceful nation, and their military primarily served a defensive purpose.
- Science & Technology: The Egyptians were early pioneers in astronomy, regulating their year based on solar movements. Their understanding of geometry developed from managing the effects of Nile floods on land ownership. They made significant advancements in architecture, sculpture, and painting.
- Literature & Resources: Egypt housed some of the earliest libraries. The Egyptians used various writing materials over time, including palm leaves, bark, waxed tablets, and papyrus paper. Their fertile lands produced abundant corn, making Egypt a vital resource for empires like Rome and Constantinople.
Ancient Egyptian Dynasties and Rulers
Much of the early history of Egypt remains shrouded in uncertainty, particularly the identities and reigns of its first kings. Historians believe a series of gods, demigods, and heroes ruled Egypt for thousands of years, but such claims are widely considered implausible. Modern scholars suggest that several dynasties ruled different regions of Egypt simultaneously, making the historical timeline complex. Egypt’s key dynasties included those based in Thebes, Thin, Memphis, and Tanis.
Historians generally agree that a ruler named Menes was the first king of Egypt. Many believe he is the same individual as Misraim, son of Ham (son of Noah). It is thought that after the dispersal from the Tower of Babel, Misraim founded Egypt and was later worshipped as the god Jupiter Ammon.
Sometime after Menes, the ruler Busiris (not to be confused with a later ruler of the same name known for cruelty) built the influential city of Thebes and designated it his seat of power. Decades later, a king named Osymandias constructed many magnificent buildings. These structures reportedly featured intricate sculptures and paintings that depicted his vast military campaigns. Nearby, archaeologists would later discover a significant structure believed to be the oldest library on record.
Uchoreus, a king following Osymandias, founded the city of Memphis. Memphis, located strategically near the Nile Delta, became a dominant force in controlling the Nile and the surrounding areas. Later, it became the favored residence of Egyptian royalty, a role it held until rivaled by the rise of Alexandria. Another notable Egyptian king, Moeris, constructed a large and significant lake that bears his name.
For many years, Egypt was ruled by native kings until an invasion by foreign rulers known as the “shepherd kings.” These kings, likely from Arabia or Phoenicia, controlled much of Lower Egypt. However, Upper Egypt remained independent, and the Theban kingdom maintained its sovereignty. This period of foreign rule lasted approximately 260 years. During this era, Abraham and his wife Sarah journeyed to Egypt, where her beauty led to some tense encounters with the ruling Pharaoh.
Later, Thetmosis or Amosis seized power and drove out the shepherd kings. Subsequently, Joseph arrived in Egypt as a slave brought by Ishmaelite merchants, and a few years later, Jacob and his family came to settle in Egypt.
According to Usher, King Amenophis had two sons named Sesosthis (or Sesostris) and Jlrmais. The Greeks referred to Amenophis as Belus, and his sons as Egyptus and Danaus. Sesostris became a powerful Egyptian ruler and a renowned conqueror of the ancient world.
It is said that Sesostris received instruction in politics and government from Mercury (the Greek Trismegistus). To this figure, Egypt supposedly owed the invention or advancement of many arts. Sesostris, around the year 2513 A.M., first engaged in combat against Arabian and Libyan forces. He harbored ambitions of conquering the entire world. Before departing, Sesostris took measures to ensure the security of his own kingdom.
He commenced his conquests by invading and subduing Ethiopia, demanding annual tribute in the form of valuable goods. He then swept through Asia, advancing deeper into India than legendary figures like Hercules, Bacchus, or later, Alexander the Great. Sesostris conquered lands beyond the Ganges River, reaching the ocean itself. The Scythians near the Tanais River, along with Armenia and Cappadocia, fell under his rule. Sesostris established a colony at the ancient city of Colchis where Egyptian traditions persisted for generations.
Monuments to his victories, reportedly seen by Herodotus, could be found across Asia Minor. Inscriptions on pillars proclaimed Sesostris as the “King of Kings” who had conquered those lands. These pillars stretched as far as Thrace, with Sesostris’ empire extending from the Danube to the Ganges. Despite the vastness of his conquests, Sesostris relinquished many of his territorial gains. After nine years of global campaigns, his holdings dwindled primarily to Egypt and some adjacent areas.
Sesostris returned from his conquests with riches, captives, and a reputation for invading nations and causing widespread suffering. His soldiers and officers were handsomely rewarded based on their service. He focused on constructing works meant to enrich Egypt. A hundred temples were erected in honor of the gods of various cities, built with the labor of captive peoples.
Sesostris could have become known as a legendary hero, but his actions were marred by vanity. He used conquered princes to pull his chariot when entering his capital or attending temple. After reigning for thirty-three years and accumulating great wealth for Egypt, Sesostris, now blind from old age, took his own life.
Egyptian Colonies and Influence
Around the historical era in question, Egyptians established colonies in various regions. One notable figure was Cecrops, who led a colony out of Egypt and founded twelve cities, eventually forming the kingdom of Athens (approximately 2448 A.M.). Meanwhile, in 2530 A.M., Danaus, brother of Sesostris, claimed the kingdom of Argos in the Peloponnese, a kingdom originally established by Inachus four centuries prior. Another Egyptian, Busiris (2533 A.M.), brother of Amenophis, was known for his cruelty. In approximately 2549 A.M., Cadmus introduced letters into Greece, likely from Syria or Phoenicia. His original alphabet had sixteen letters, with eight more added later.
Sesostris was succeeded by Pheron (2547 A.M.) who inherited the kingdom but not his predecessor’s military conquests. Proteus followed in 2600 A.M. He resided in Memphis, where his temple, dedicated to Venus, still stood during the time of Herodotus. It is believed that this “Venus” figure could be Helen since Paris and the stolen Helen of Troy sought refuge in Proteus’s court during this era. Proteus restored Helen and her treasures to Menelaus after the Trojan War.
Rhampsinitus is said to have amassed more wealth than any prior Pharaoh. Brothers Cheops and Cephrenus are noted for their impiety and cruelty. In contrast, Mycerinus, son of Cheops, reopened temples, promoted religious rites, and ruled with justice. Asychis passed a law that forbade borrowing without using a deceased father’s body as collateral.
The chronology has uncertainties. If the previous six reigns spanned approximately 170 years, nearly 300 years remain until the Ethiopian Sabacus’s rule. Some biblical events may fall within this gap. One Pharaoh (2991 A.M.) gave his daughter in marriage to Solomon. Later, Sosach (also called Sasonchis) ruled (3026 A.M.). Jeroboam sought refuge with him and later led the rebellion of ten tribes. Sosach attacked Jerusalem in the fifth year of Rehoboam’s reign, pillaging its treasures. Later, Ethiopian king Zerah warred against Judah’s King Asa (3063 A.M.). King Asa is known for his prayer asking God for support against the Ethiopian forces.
The blind Anysis was overthrown by Ethiopian Sabachus, who ruled with moderation for fifty years. Sethon (likely the same as Sevechus, son of Sabachon) followed. Egyptian priests claimed an excessively long history of 341 generations (11,340 years). After Sethon, the Ethiopian Tharaca helped relieve Jerusalem. He was the final Ethiopian Pharaoh of Egypt. A period of anarchy followed his death. Eventually, twelve nobles seized power and divided Egypt.
Psammetichus (3334 A.M.) became sole ruler of Egypt by defeating the other eleven nobles with the help of Greek soldiers. He waged war against Assyria, seeking to define borders. Psammetichus died and was succeeded by Nechao (Pharaoh-Necho in the Bible) in 3388 A.M. Nechao tried to connect the Nile and Red Sea with a canal but failed. He did succeed in having Phoenician sailors circumnavigate Africa, a major feat that predated Vasco de Gama’s similar voyage.
The Rise and Fall of Egyptian Pharaohs
Following the destruction of Nineveh and the powerful Assyrian Empire, Pharaoh Necho of Egypt grew concerned about the rising power of the Babylonians and Medes. He marched a large army to the Euphrates to halt their expansion. During this advance, Josiah, the king of Judah, attempted to intercept Necho’s forces. Josiah was defeated and mortally wounded in the battle. Necho continued northward, defeating the Babylonians at the city of Carchemish before returning to Egypt.
Upon learning that Jehoahaz had proclaimed himself king of Jerusalem without his permission, Necho had him imprisoned in Egypt, where he died. Necho then appointed Eliakim (referred to as Jehoiakim) as king and levied a substantial annual tribute on Judah.
Nabopolassar, the aging king of Babylon, made his son Nebuchadnezzar II his co-ruler. Nebuchadnezzar II decisively defeated Necho’s army near the Euphrates and reclaimed rebellious provinces, fulfilling the prophecies of Jeremiah.
Psammis succeeded his father Necho as Pharaoh but reigned for only six years. His successor, Apries (also known as Pharaoh Hophrah), initially achieved military success in Cyprus, Sidon, and across Phoenicia and Palestine. However, God (through the prophet Ezekiel) vowed to punish Apries for his arrogance.
Intrigue within Egypt led to Amasis rebelling against Apries. Taking advantage of this division, Nebuchadnezzar II invaded Egypt, causing widespread devastation. Nebuchadnezzar II left Amasis as his viceroy before returning to Babylon. Apries attempted to regain power but was defeated, captured, and executed.
As Ezekiel prophesized, Egypt endured forty years of hardship. Upon their conclusion, the Persians conquered Egypt, ending the rule of native Pharaohs for centuries. Egypt would endure a long period of foreign rule by the Persians, Macedonians, Romans, Saracens, Mamelukes, and finally the Turks.
Amasis, who hailed from the city of Sais, took the throne after Apries’ death. His reign was lengthy and peaceful. Amasis built temples and welcomed Greeks into Egypt. The island of Cyprus was conquered and made a tributary state. It was during Amasis’ reign that Pythagoras visited Egypt, learning the country’s religious mysteries and adopting the concept of the transmigration of souls.
Egypt likely fell to Cyrus the Great during his vast conquests. After the prophesied forty-year period of decline, Egypt likely regained its freedom for a time. Cambyses, Cyrus’ son, successfully invaded and conquered Egypt upon becoming King. His forces defeated Pharaoh Psammetichus III at Memphis. Despite an initial display of leniency, Cambyses later executed Psammetichus after receiving reports of a planned rebellion.
With this defeat, Egypt’s history was intertwined with the Persian and Greek empires until the rise of Alexander the Great. Following Alexander’s death, Ptolemy established a new Egyptian dynasty that would endure until the reign of Cleopatra.
