Amastris (circa 340/39-285 BCE) was the niece of Persian King Darius III (reigned 336-330 BCE), being the daughter of Oxyathres. Throughout her life, she was married to several prominent figures, including Alexander’s general Craterus, the tyrant Dionysius of Heraclea, and ultimately Lysimachus of Thrace. Amastris established a city named after herself in Paphlagonia and is recognized as the first queen to mint coins bearing her name.
She had four children and was reportedly divorced to allow Lysimachus to wed Arsinoe II. It is also claimed that her sons murdered her due to her interference in their matters. Despite their separation, Lysimachus sought retribution for her death by killing her sons. Amastris has largely been overlooked by scholars, leaving the scant details of her life shrouded in contradictions, much like the ancient sources that document her existence. Nevertheless, this relatively obscure queen can be considered the first genuine Hellenistic queen, representing the fusion of Persian and Greco-Macedonian cultural traditions.
The Last Achaemenid Princess
Amastris, the daughter of Prince Oxyathres—who was the brother of the last Persian king Darius III Codomannus—was effectively the final surviving princess of the Achaemenid dynasty. While her mother’s identity remains unknown, the only woman linked to her father is an Egyptian concubine named Timosa. Following the Battle of Issus in 333 BCE, Alexander the Great discovered Amastris among various royal and noble women. Nearly a decade later, during the grand wedding festivities at Susa in 324 BCE, where Macedonian high commanders were united with Persian and Median women, Alexander bestowed Amastris upon his general Craterus. He was notably one of the few companions, alongside Hephaestion, to marry a Persian princess. Historians suggest that Craterus, who was known for his strong adherence to Macedonian customs, ultimately rejected Amastris in favor of marrying Phila, the daughter of the Macedonian regent Antipater. Given that polygamy was practiced among Macedonian royalty and nobility, Craterus was not required to divorce one wife to take another. Nevertheless, he would soon meet his demise in battle in 321 BCE.
Dionysius of Heraclea
The ancient historian Memnon suggests that Amastris was not left without support, as she proposed marriage to the tyrant Dionysius of Heraclea Pontica (circa 360-305 BCE) with the approval of Craterus. Together, they had three children: Amastris, Clearchus, and Oxyathres. The names chosen for her children reflect her noble heritage as a Persian princess. Amastris possessed valuable insights into the intricacies of the Persian aristocracy, having received a Greek education prior to her wedding in Susa, and likely gained knowledge about Macedonian affairs through her first husband.
Amastris could provide Lysimachus with her wealth, enhance diplomatic ties with the Persian elite, and establish a symbolic link to the Achaemenid dynasty.
Dionysius leveraged his marriage to broaden his influence in Bithynia, a strategy he had been pursuing since the Battle of Granicus (334 BCE) and the subsequent decline of Persian authority. Memnon notes that through his union with Amastris, Dionysius significantly improved his fortune and wealth, fortified and expanded his power, and enhanced the welfare and loyalty of his subjects.
Shortly before his death, Dionysius emulated Antigonus I Monophthalmus (382-301 BCE) and other successors by claiming the title of basileus (‘king’; circa 306/5 BCE). The circumstances surrounding his death became a well-known cautionary tale against excessive indulgence and gluttony, preserved in the writings of Athenaeus, Aelian, and Photius, all of which likely trace back to Nymphis of Heraclea, a contemporary of Dionysius. It is reported that Dionysius died at the age of 55 due to asphyxiation caused by his extreme obesity, despite attempts by his physicians to save him using large needles. Before his passing (circa 305 BCE), Dionysius appointed Amastris as regent for their minor sons, Clearchus and Oxyathres. Initially, she governed with the backing of Antigonus until he became preoccupied with the formidable coalition formed against him by successor kings Cassander (circa 355-297 BCE), Ptolemy I (366-282 BCE), Seleucus I Nicator (358-281 BCE), and Lysimachus (circa 355-281 BCE).
Lysimachus of Thrace
Amastris held power in Heraclea for a duration of three years. During this time, Lysimachus was appointed to Thrace following Alexander’s death in 323 BCE. He proclaimed himself king around 305 BCE, like other successors, and sought to expand his territory. Consequently, he crossed the Hellespont and invaded Asia Minor in 302 BCE. At the conclusion of the campaign season, the ancient historian Diodorus recounts:
Lysimachus divided his troops to establish winter quarters in the Salonia plain. He requested numerous supplies from Heraclea and entered into a political marriage with Amastris, who was the reigning dynast of the city at that time (Diod. 20.109.6-7).
This marriage was evidently strategic, benefiting both parties involved. For Amastris, aligning herself with Lysimachus rather than Antigonus was primarily aimed at safeguarding her own position and that of her children by preventing the annexation of Heraclea.
On the other hand, Lysimachus required support against Antigonus. The marriage served to avert military conflict and the necessity for garrisons in the area. Amastris could also provide him with financial resources, enhance diplomatic ties with Persian nobility, and offer a symbolic link to the Achaemenid dynasty, which might be advantageous for Lysimachus in fortifying his stance against Seleucus. Additionally, Heraclea granted Lysimachus access to a Black Sea harbor, controlling vital routes from both the east and west. It is noteworthy that Lysimachus was already married and recognized as polygamous. Like many Macedonians, he had received a bride during the Susa wedding ceremony and later wed Nicaea, the younger daughter of Antipater, around the time of the Settlement at Triparadisus (320/19 BCE).
Following the Battle of Ipsus in 301 BCE, where Antigonus was defeated, Lysimachus summoned Amastris to Sardis, the capital of Lydia. Her son Clearchus was appointed ruler of Heraclea Pontica, succeeding his father, and would later share authority with his younger brother Oxyathres. The degree to which they maintained autonomy from Lysimachus remains uncertain. It could be assumed that Amastris joined Lysimachus at his court in Thrace, although there is no concrete evidence to support this. Shortly thereafter, around 300/299 BCE, he married Arsinoe, the daughter of Ptolemy I of Egypt. Most scholars suggest that Lysimachus practiced serial monogamy, leading to a divorce from Amastris. Ultimately, Amastris did return to Heraclea, implying that she may have separated from her third husband.
More Affairs
From Bithynia to Paphlagonia
Traditionally, queens were expected to remain within the king’s court alongside their husbands. However, Amastris initially lived in Sardis, while Arsinoe II was later appointed by Lysimachus as his royal representative in Ephesus. It would have been advantageous for Lysimachus to keep Amastris close, suggesting that she may have been positioned on the Pontic coast to govern on her husband’s behalf, similar to Arsinoe’s role in Ephesus. Additionally, her son Clearchus participated in Lysimachus’ campaign against the Getae (Thracian tribes along the Lower Danube around 293/2 BCE), indicating a strong alliance that seems improbable if Lysimachus had previously rejected Amastris.
Amastris took the initiative to establish a new city, present-day Amasra, and minted impressive silver coins bearing her name.
Her return to Heraclea affected her sons’ status, as her presence signified her regained authority over the city, which likely occurred with Lysimachus’ approval. Upon her arrival, she is credited with revitalizing the city. Furthermore, she founded a new city named after herself (modern Amasra) beyond the River Parthenius (Bartın Çayı) on the Paphlagonian coast, situated between Heraclea and Sinope. Notably, Amastris issued striking silver coins inscribed with the reverse legend Basilissês Amastrios. While basillisa generally refers to ‘royal woman,’ in this context it specifically denotes ‘queen.’
Although Phila, the spouse of Demetrius I of Macedon (circa 336 – circa 282 BCE), was the first woman to be granted the title basilissa (around 305/4 BCE), these coins represent the inaugural issuance in the name of a queen or any living woman, thus serving as a significant assertion of female power. It would be extraordinary if Amastris, of Persian descent, ruled independently as a female sovereign rather than merely as a king’s consort. She was of royal lineage, her father Dionysius had claimed kingship shortly before his demise, and Lysimachus also asserted his claim to kingship. Consequently, it appears that Lysimachus facilitated Amastris’ role as queen along the Paphlagonian coast.
The obverse side of Amastris’ silver staters showcases a dynamic youthful head adorned with a Phrygian or Persian-style cap, embellished with a laurel wreath. In posthumous issues, an eight-rayed star is also depicted; some of the earliest coins feature a bow and quiver positioned behind the neck. The identity of the portrait has been attributed to various figures, including Attis, Men, Mithras, Perseus, and possibly Amastris herself or her Amazonian counterpart. The reverse side presents a veiled female figure, clad in a pleated garment, seated on a cushioned throne while holding a floral scepter in her left hand. In her outstretched right hand, she either grasps a small winged Eros or a Nike. The Eros figurine offers a ribbon to a radiate head of Helios above, while the Nike figurine presents the woman with a wreath.
The headdress on the youthful figure is indicative of a Persian cap rather than a Phrygian one, a design commonly found on the satrapal coinage of the Achaemenid Empire. Consequently, the obverse of Amastris’ coinage articulates the queen’s authority to rule as the representative of the king, expressed through a distinctly Persian lens that proudly affirms her royal lineage.
Death & Aftermath
The exact number of years that elapsed following Amastris’ return from Lysimachus’ court, during which she assumed control of Heraclea, established a new city, and minted at least ten distinct types of coinage to assert her authority, remains unclear (though it is likely between five and ten years). Her sons, Clearches and Oxyathres, seemingly failed to reach a consensus with both her and Lysimachus. In an apparent bid for independence, the brothers ultimately drowned their mother at sea. Upon Amastris’ death around 285 BCE, Lysimachus arrived in Heraclea, ostensibly to endorse the succession of Clearchus and Oxyathres, demonstrating his typical façade of ‘friendship’ and ‘fatherly affection.’ Subsequently, he avenged Amastris’ murder by executing the matricides. Lysimachus then dismantled the tyranny in Heraclea, instituting a democratic government and placing the city under his direct protection, before taking the tyrants’ wealth and returning to Thrace.
The marital alliances at the dynastic level discussed here were primarily pragmatic, diplomatic, and political in nature, contrary to the claims made by ancient sources suggesting otherwise. Alexander and his successors did not enter into marriages motivated by love, although some degree of affection or attraction may have been present. The prevailing belief in romance significantly hinders our comprehension of Hellenistic dynastic practices. Furthermore, both ancient and modern interpretations regarding the supposed serial monogamy of these kings are fundamentally flawed.
Similar to other successors, Lysimachus sought to promote his dynastic legacy by establishing settlements named after himself and his wives throughout his kingdom. Notable cities include Lysimachia in Thrace (present-day Gallipoli), Nicaea in Bithynia, and Arsinoea at the site of Ephesus, alongside the city of Amastris. The founding of these cities served not only economic and military purposes but also symbolic and ideological functions. By creating cities across his realm and circulating coins bearing the names of his wives, this dynastic policy aimed to enhance the prestige of his royal family and reinforce the visibility of his power while elevating the perceived influence of his wives.
In conclusion, Amastris emerged as a significant figure in the early 3rd century BCE, establishing herself as the first Hellenistic queen in a genuine sense. Although other royal women, such as Phila and Apama, held the title of basilissa prior to her, none had the distinction of founding cities or minting coins, nor did any possess royal Persian lineage. An examination of the available, albeit conflicting, evidence has led to a reevaluation of Amastris’s life. Rather than merely serving as a pawn in dynastic marriage alliances, her impressive career and the circumstances surrounding her death depict her as a powerful agent who played a crucial role for the men she married. Lysimachus, whose primary objective was to expand his kingdom, typically utilized his queens as symbols of his authority. Furthermore, Amastris appears to have taken pride in her Persian heritage.
