Ancient Chinese Sculpture (Part VII)

Sui, Tang and Five Dynasties (Part 1)

I. Stone Sculpture

During the Sui, Tang and Five Dynasties, with the unprecedented prosperity of political, economic and cultural development, stone sculpture art also reached a new peak. We will still describe it from three aspects: Buddhist stone sculpture, emperor’s mausoleum stone carving groups, and daily life stone sculpture.

1. Buddhist Stone Sculpture

This includes stone grotto sculptures, stone pagodas, and various stone carved offerings.

Buddhist sculptures in stone grottoes remain the mainstream of religious stone sculpture. In addition to the aforementioned Longmen Grottoes in Luoyang, Mogao Grottoes in Dunhuang, Maiji Mountain Grottoes in Tianshui, Bingling Temple Grottoes in Yongjing County, Nanbei Grottoes in Qingyang, Maiji Mountain Grottoes in Tianshui, and Tianlongshan Grottoes in Taiyuan, Shanxi, which contain a large number of stone sculptures and decorative art from the Sui, Tang and Five Dynasties, there also emerged Buddhist stone sculptures like the Stone Bell Mountain Grottoes in Jianchuan, Yunnan, Dazu Grottoes in Sichuan, Leshan Giant Buddha in Sichuan, the Flying Peak Grottoes in Lingyin Temple, Hangzhou, and the stone carvings in Jixia Mountain, Nanjing.

The construction of Buddhist stone grottoes, from the Northern and Southern Dynasties to the Sui and Tang Dynasties, reached its peak. Its scope expanded from North China to the south of the Yangtze River. The patrons of the grottoes and their sculptures also expanded from emperors and nobles to ordinary people, which resulted in numerous large and small caves and niches. As a result, the influence of wooden structure architecture on grotto art greatly diminished.

In addition, the style of Buddha statues also changed significantly in the earlier and later stages. Compared to the stone grotto sculptures of the Han, Wei, Jin, and Northern and Southern Dynasties, there were dramatic changes in techniques and style. Early Buddhist sculptures were simple, plain, and rough. While there were many excellent works, they were constrained by the Buddhist image conventions, making many sculptures stiff and lifeless. With the formation of the open atmosphere of the Tang Dynasty and the emergence of the strong “prosperity of the Tang Dynasty”, Buddhist art underwent tremendous changes in both technique and style.

In terms of stone sculpture, the subject matter became more diverse and had a stronger national character. The carving techniques evolved from the straight knife technique to the round knife technique, creating a smooth and elegant aesthetic. The use of multiple techniques, including relief, openwork, and others, resulted in a style that was elegant, dignified, powerful, magnificent, well-structured, and precisely shaped.

For example, the sculptures from the Northern Wei period in Longmen initially resembled the old style of Yun冈 Grottoes in Datong. Although there were some changes, the facial features were mostly thin and delicate. The sculptures from the Northern Qi period began to appear short and stout with strong, broad shoulders and chests. This was a concrete manifestation of the transition from the Northern Wei style to the prosperous Tang style.

The Tang dynasty Buddhist sculptures from Longmen in the periods of Emperor Taizong and Emperor Gaozong were mostly round and plump, with straight bodies. The techniques used included both straight knife and round knife, and they began to emphasize the relationship between human anatomy, achieving a major breakthrough in shaping style. The sculptures from the Longmen Grottoes during the reign of Empress Wu Zetian were standard examples of Tang dynasty sculptures and the most outstanding representatives of the prosperous Tang Dynasty stone sculpture art. They fully reflect that by the prosperous Tang Dynasty, Chinese stone sculpture had reached an extremely high level of skill.

Like other art forms, the rise and fall of stone sculpture was directly related to the prosperity and decline of the political, economic, cultural and religious environment at the time.

It is rumored that the elegant and magnificent image of the Buddha Luoshena at the Faxiang Temple was modeled after Empress Wu Zetian’s appearance. This sacred religious site became a place for the secular society to compete for extravagance and luxury. Naturally, the divine nature of religion was infected by the atmosphere of human relationships. The magnificent flow of the Buddha’s robes, the plump and exposed body, and the graceful curves all reflected the worldly noise of the prosperous era. Similarly, before and after the An Lushan Rebellion, Tang dynasty sculptures transitioned from maturity to decline. Firstly, the scale and number of sculptures were not as grand as before. Moreover, the image depictions were mostly pale and lifeless, with rigid styles, and had lost the realistic and lively style of the earlier period.

The rise and fall of art in the Longmen Grottoes generally represents the evolution of sculpture in the Sui and Tang Dynasties in the Central Plains. However, historical development is often unbalanced. The southward shift of China’s economic center from the Southern Dynasties to the Sui and Tang Dynasties created opportunities for cultural and artistic development in the south, especially for Buddhist grotto art. From the late Tang Dynasty, Buddhist grotto art began to rise in the south, with the most representative and influential example being the Dazu Stone Carvings in Sichuan, a magnificent spectacle of stone sculpture.

The Stone Bell Mountain Grottoes in Jianchuan, Yunnan, were first excavated during the reign of King Quan Fengyou of Nanzhao, during the reign of Emperor Wuzong of Tang Dynasty, and are representative works of minority stone grotto art from the Nanzhao and Dali kingdoms (649-1253). It demonstrates that China’s outstanding culture, including stone sculpture, was created jointly by all ethnic groups within its borders. This is one of the deepest ties connecting the various ethnic groups, and also the main reason why Chinese culture has been enduring and the Chinese nation has not disintegrated like the Soviet Union or Eastern Europe.

The construction of Buddhist stone grottoes, from the Northern and Southern Dynasties to the Sui and Tang Dynasties, reached its peak. Its scope expanded from North China to the south of the Yangtze River. The patrons of the grottoes and their sculptures also expanded from emperors and nobles to ordinary people, which resulted in numerous large and small caves and niches. As a result, the influence of wooden structure architecture on grotto art greatly diminished.

In addition, the style of Buddha statues also changed significantly in the earlier and later stages. The second category of Buddhist sculpture, pagodas, had lost its central position in temples by the Tang Dynasty, though it remained an important component of Buddhist temples. Its majestic and sturdy shape still provided a basis for supporting public buildings and urban landscapes. There were many brick pagodas during the Sui, Tang and Five Dynasties. Stone pagodas became rare. Existing stone pagodas include the Sui Dynasty pagoda at the Longxing Temple in Xinhui, Guangdong, the pagoda built in the fourth year of the Tang Dynasty by the master Ming Hui, the Southern Tang Dynasty relic pagoda at Qixia Temple in Nanjing, and the Wuyue Dynasty stone pagoda at Lingyin Temple in Hangzhou. The Tang Dynasty decorative stone carving relief of dancing heavenly beings on the Big Wild Goose Pagoda in Xi’an is a masterpiece of architectural stone carving. The dancers’ postures are free and joyful, the fluttering ribbons are dynamic, the seated musicians are graceful, and the contrast creates a visual harmony. This is reminiscent of the most beautiful flying angel imagery in Buddhist art.

Entering the Five Dynasties, the fragmented and war-torn situation caused great destruction of the culture of the Central Plains and made further artistic breakthroughs impossible. Therefore, stone sculpture during the Five Dynasties mainly maintained the Tang style of realistic, delicate, and luxurious style. The border areas and Jiangnan region were less affected by the war and experienced economic prosperity. Furthermore, the ruling class valued art and extravagance. Therefore, in terms of subject matter selection, style, techniques and aesthetic preferences, these areas showed more creativity and development than the Central Plains. The Five Dynasties were a brief period. Naturaly, the creation of new Buddhist grottoes and architectural stone carvings was different from the previous period. The only examples that could be considered to continue the former glory were the stone carvings of Buddhist architecture at Jixia Mountain in Nanjing. The Qixia Mountain Buddhist temple built during the Five Dynasties no longer exists. The relic pagoda built during the Southern Tang Dynasty, which still stands today, can be considered representative. The Qixia Temple relic pagoda is a testament to the popularity of Buddhism in Jiangnan. Due to the frequent change of dynasties and constant warfare, people could only seek solace in their longing for a religious paradise. The stories of the Buddha’s life depicted in the reliefs of the Qixia Temple pagoda provide a visual teaching that guides people from the noisy and suffering world to a realm of transcendence and nothingness.

In addition to large-scale grotto sculptures, there were also stone carved offerings in various places. Emperor Wen of Sui ended the fragmented situation of the Southern Dynasties, but in terms of devotion to Buddhism, he surpassed the emperors of the Southern Dynasties. According to written records, Emperor Wen built 3,792 temples and 110 pagodas in his lifetime, far surpassing the “480 temples in the Southern Dynasties.” The unprecedented number of temples naturally led to unprecedented devotion to Buddhism in society, resulting in the creation of countless Buddha statues for offerings. Existing famous temples such as Yunju Temple in Beijing, Qixia Temple in Nanjing, and Tiantai Temple in Zhejiang were all built during the Sui Dynasty. They contain a large number of exquisite Buddha statues. Emperor Wen of Sui built 16,580 Buddha statues made of gold, copper, sandalwood, wood, ivory, and stone in his lifetime, and repaired 158,894 old statues. Emperor Yang of Sui ordered the carving of 3,850 new Buddha statues and the repair of 101,000 old statues. Among them, there must have been a considerable number of exquisite stone carvings.

After the establishment of the Li Tang Dynasty, it declared itself as the descendant of Laozi Li’er and established Daoism as the state religion. Empress Wu Zetian, during her reign, sought to replace the Li Tang regime. She promoted Buddhism as a counterforce to Daoism in the realm of thought and culture. Besides modeling the Buddha Luoshena at the Faxiang Temple in Longmen after her own appearance, Empress Wu Zetian, as an empress, donated 20,000 guan of “makeup money,” and led hundred officials and ministers to participate in the opening ceremony of the grand Buddha. For a while, the event was unprecedentedly magnificent. Afterwards, monks like Dharma Master compiled a four-volume “Great Cloud Sutra”, claiming that Empress Wu was the incarnation of Maitreya Buddha and should be the ruler of the world. Empress Wu ordered the publication of the Sutra throughout the country, appointed monks to explain it, and elevated Buddhism above Daoism. Monk Xue Huaiyi then led tens of thousands of people to destroy the Daoist Qianyuan Palace and build the Mingtang. The Mingtang was 294 feet high and 300 feet wide, with three floors, a 10-foot-tall iron phoenix, and decorations made of gold, called the “Palace of Ten Thousand Images.” After the completion of the Mingtang, Empress Wu ordered Xue Huaiyi to cast a large Buddha statue. The Buddha’s little finger could accommodate dozens of people. She also built the Heaven, a five-story building north of the Mingtang, to house this statue. By then, Buddhism reached its peak of prosperity. The ancestral temples of the eight major schools of Chinese Buddhism were all built during this time. Famous Buddhist temples included Da Ci’en Temple in Xi’an, Huayan Temple in Xi’an, Six Ancestors Temple in Guangzhou, San Mianyang Bisui Temple in Shuzhou, and Foguang Temple in Mount Wutai.

Smaller offerings include 81 stone statues with Sui Dynasty dated inscriptions unearthed in the Xiude Temple in Quyang, Hebei in 1953. Most of these statues are broken, with the Sui Dynasty offering Buddha statues mostly being small white marble statues measuring 20 to 30 cm. One of them is a seated statue measuring 36 cm high. Although the head and right hand of this Buddha statue are missing, one can still see the artist’s superb technique and shaping ability. The treatment of drapery varies in density, with decorative elements, creating an effect of “clothing emerging from water” (Cao Yi Chu Shui). The statue successfully employs this technique to reveal human anatomy and body curves. This Buddha statue is plump, delicately crafted, and shares the same style as the large statues of the Tang Dynasty. In 2000, a small stone pagoda was unearthed from the Tian Gong area of the Leifeng Pagoda ruins in Hangzhou. The pagoda’s body is 10.2 cm long, 7.9 cm wide, and 11 cm wide at its widest point. The body is a square with rounded corners. The top and bottom are flat. There is a small circular hole in the center of the top, measuring 0.8 cm in diameter and 1 cm deep. There are four flame-shaped, pot-shaped niches on the four sides of the pagoda. Inside each niche is a seated Buddha. The Buddha has a low flat meat bun, wears a shoulder-length Kasaya, and sits in a cross-legged posture with his hands in the meditation mudra. The Buddha is surrounded by a gourd-shaped halo. The pagoda is currently in the Zhejiang Provincial Museum.

Below, we introduce some representative Buddhist stone sculptures from this period, including stone grotto sculptures, stone pagodas, and various stone carved offerings.

1. Longmen Grottoes

For a general introduction to the Longmen Grottoes, please refer to the “Wei, Jin, and Northern and Southern Dynasties” section. Here, we will briefly introduce the representative works of the Sui, Tang and Five Dynasties.

The Longmen Grottoes contain mainly Tang Dynasty and Northern Wei grottoes. Tang dynasty grottoes account for 60% of the total, while Northern Wei grottoes account for approximately 30%, with the remaining grottoes from other dynasties accounting for about 10%. The Tang dynasty sculptures in Longmen are concentrated in the Qianxi Temple, the three-Buddha niche on the cliff, the Wanfo Cave, and the Faxiang Temple.

The Qianxi Temple is the first large cave on the north end of the west mountain of Longmen. It is about nine meters high and wide, and nearly seven meters deep. It was built about 1,300 years ago during the early Tang Dynasty. The coffered ceiling is a shallowly carved large lotus. The main Buddha, Amitabha Buddha, sits on a Sumeru platform. His face is plump, his chest is prominent, his robe hangs down to the front of the seat, the proportions of his body are harmonious, and his expression is wise. The entire posture conveys a sense of tranquility and benevolence. To the left of the main Buddha is his senior disciple, Kasyapa, and to the right is his junior disciple, Ananda. Next to the two disciples are the Guanyin Bodhisattva and the Mahasthamaprapta Bodhisattva. In particular, the Mahasthamaprapta Bodhisattva on the south wall has a plump and thick shape, a quiet demeanor, and a 1:1 replica is on display at the Palace Museum.

The three-Buddha niche on the cliff contains seven sculptures, including three seated Buddhas and four standing Buddhas. This type of sculpture combination is extremely rare in Chinese stone grottoes. The central Buddha is Maitreya, sitting on a square platform, his head is damaged and only the outline is carved, without being polished. Empress Wu Zetian used the Maitreya belief to create public opinion for her ascension to the throne. After her ascension, she proclaimed herself “Cishi” (meaning Maitreya), which promoted the popularity of Maitreya belief. The excavation of the three-Buddha niche on the cliff occurred against this historical backdrop. With the collapse of the Wu Zhou regime, the three-Buddha niche on the cliff also ceased construction. Although this group of sculptures is unfinished, it provides valuable material evidence for understanding the excavation process of stone grotto sculptures.

The Wanfo Cave was built in the first year of Emperor Gaozong’s Yonglong reign (680). It was named after the 15,000 small Buddhas carved on the north and south sides of the cave. The cave is a structure with a front and rear chamber. The front chamber contains two warrior guardians and two lions, while the rear chamber contains a Buddha, two disciples, two Bodhisattvas, and two Heavenly Kings, making it the grotto with the most complete sculpture combination in the Longmen Grottoes. The cave ceiling has a beautiful lotus. Surrounding the lotus is an inscription: “Completed on the thirtieth day of the eleventh month of the first year of Yonglong in the Tang Dynasty, supervised by Yao Shenbiao, the internal Dharma Master, Zhiyun, one niche of 15,000 statues.” This indicates that the grotto was completed on the thirtieth day of the eleventh month of the first year of Yonglong in the Tang Dynasty under the supervision of the second-rank court lady Yao Shenbiao and the internal Dharma Master, Zhiyun. This is the most complete documented information about the Longmen Grottoes. The main Buddha in the cave is Amitabha Buddha, seated on a double lotus pedestal. His face is plump and round, his shoulders are broad, and the simple and smooth drapery employs the round knife technique of the Tang Dynasty. The main Buddha is in the “Fearless Mudra”, expressing that he is fearless in heaven and earth and is the only supreme being. Behind the main Buddha are 52 lotuses, each with a seated Bodhisattva. They sit, lean, hold lotuses, whisper to each other, and have different expressions, like a group portrait of different girls. The number 52 represents the stages of the Bodhisattva’s practice from the beginning to the final enlightenment, namely, the ten stages of faith, the ten stages of dwelling, the ten stages of practice, the ten stages of returning, the ten stages of earth, the stage of non-return, and the stage of perfect enlightenment. On the south side of the cave, there is also a Bodhisattva statue. She is an exquisite example of the many Bodhisattva statues from the Tang dynasty in the Longmen Grottoes. The Bodhisattva is 85 cm high. Her head tilts to the right, and her body forms an “S” curve, creating a very beautiful and dignified posture. The famous Chinese theatrical master Mei Lanfang, when visiting Longmen in his youth, was attracted by her graceful figure and praised it highly. Afterwards, he skillfully incorporated her beautiful image into his performances.

[Image 1: Bodhisattva statue on the south side of the Wanfo Cave; Image 2: Mei Lanfang’s performance of a Buddha in meditation]

The Faxiang Temple is the largest and most exquisitely crafted group of cliff-face sculptures in the Longmen Grottoes. Because it belonged to the royal temple, the Faxiang Temple, it is commonly called the “Faxiang Temple.” The cave was excavated in the third year of Emperor Gaozong’s Xianghang reign (672). Empress Wu Zetian donated 20,000 guan of “makeup money” to sponsor the project. The construction was completed in the second year of the Shangyuan reign (675). The cave is over 30 meters long and wide. The sculptures in the cave clearly reflect the characteristics of Tang Dynasty Buddhist art. They have plump faces, drooping ears, and full, peaceful, gentle, and approachable forms, which are extremely moving. The inscription on the north side of the main Buddha’s lotus pedestal calls it the “Grand Luoshena Buddha Niche.” There are a total of nine large figures in this niche. The central Buddha is the Great Luoshena Buddha, the manifestation of Shakyamuni Buddha. According to Buddhist scriptures, Luoshena means “light that illuminates everything.” The Buddha statue is 17.14 meters high, 4 meters high from head to toe, and his ears are 1.9 meters long. The Buddha’s face is plump and round, his head is decorated with wave-shaped hair, his eyebrows are curved like crescent moons, and his eyes are slightly gazing down. He has a tall straight nose, a small mouth, and a peaceful smile. His ears are long and slightly drooping, and his chin is round and slightly protruding. He is perfectly harmonious, peaceful, and at ease, wearing a shoulder-length Kasaya, with simple and unadorned drapery. The concentric circles of drapery make the head stand out as exceptionally bright and holy. The entire statue is like a wise and benevolent middle-aged woman, inspiring reverence without fear. Some have commented that in sculpting this Buddha statue, the noble character, rich emotions, broad mind, and elegant appearance were perfectly integrated. Therefore, she has immense artistic charm.

[Image 3: The nine large Buddhas in the Faxiang Temple, with the Great Luoshena Buddha in the center]

2. Mogao Grottoes in Dunhuang

For a general introduction to the Mogao Grottoes in Dunhuang, please refer to the “Wei, Jin, and Northern and Southern Dynasties” section. Here, we will briefly introduce the representative works of the Sui, Tang and Five Dynasties.

The Sui and Tang Dynasties were the golden age of the Mogao Grottoes. There are over 300 existing caves. Dunhuang was occupied by the Tang Dynasty in the first year of Emperor Gaozu’s Wude reign (619). In the fourteenth year of Emperor Taizong’s Zhenguan reign (640), Gaochang was conquered, and Tang culture began to permeate Dunhuang. This period of cultural exchange continued until the second year of Emperor Dezong’s Jianzhong reign (781), when Shazhou fell to the Tubo (Tibetan) Empire and Dunhuang was occupied. This period, spanning over 140 years, saw the construction of the most caves, making this the peak period of the development of stone grotto art. During this period, approximately 150 caves were excavated. In the early period, most caves were concentrated on the upper and lower levels. Eleven of these caves have dated inscriptions: the 220th cave, built in the sixteenth year of Emperor Taizong’s Zhenguan reign (642); the 386th cave, built in the second year of Emperor Gaozong’s Shangyuan reign (675); the 335th cave, built in the second year of Empress Wu Zetian’s Chuigong reign (686); the 96th cave, built in the second year of her Yanzai reign (695); the 123rd cave, built in the first year of her Wansui Shengong reign (697); the 332nd cave, built in the first year of her Shengli reign (698); the 130th cave, built in the ninth year of Emperor Xuanzong’s Kaiyuan reign (721); the 41st cave, built in the fourteenth year of his Kaiyuan reign (726); the 180th cave, built in the seventh year of his Tianbao reign (748); the 185th cave, built in the eighth year of his Tianbao reign (749); and the 148th cave, built in the eleventh year of Emperor Daizong’s Dali reign (776).

Chán caves and central tower pillar caves gradually disappeared during the Sui and Tang Dynasties, while palace caves, Buddha altar caves, four-wall three-niche caves, and large statue caves appeared in large numbers. Among them, palace caves were the most numerous. Tang Dynasty sculptures were mostly round sculptures, with few reliefs and shadow sculptures. They were richly and plumply shaped, with a more Central Plains style. Large sculptures that did not exist in previous dynasties also appeared. Group sculpture combinations were often seven or nine figures. During the Sui Dynasty, the main figures were generally one Buddha, two disciples, two Bodhisattvas, or four Bodhisattvas. In the Tang Dynasty, the main figures were generally one Buddha, two disciples, two Bodhisattvas, and two Heavenly Kings, and some even included two warrior guardians. The sense of space in the sculptures increased significantly. The most common arrangements for sculptures were one row of five figures, one row of seven figures, one Buddha, one disciple, two Bodhisattvas, one Buddha, two disciples, two Bodhisattvas, two Heavenly Kings, and one Buddha, two disciples, and four Bodhisattvas. The main Buddha was often depicted with snail-shaped hair. The Buddha’s robes included styles where the robe draped over both shoulders and hung down, the right side exposed, half-covered, and evolved from the loose robe style with wide sleeves. Among these, the robe draped over both shoulders and hung down was the most common. The appearance of seated Maitreya Buddha increased gradually, reflecting the popularity of Maitreya belief. The proportions of the sculptures were closer to realism, departing from the characteristic large head and small body of Sui Dynasty sculptures.

For example, the 45th cave features two attendant disciples. The one on the left is the elder Kasyapa, and the one on the right is the younger Ananda, which became the fixed arrangement for attendant disciples in Tang Dynasty caves. The depiction of Bodhisattvas reached its peak in the Mogao Grottoes. The colored clay sculpture of the Bodhisattva in this cave can be considered a masterpiece among similar sculptures in the Mogao Grottoes. The Bodhisattva is adorned with a high bun, has a bare upper body, and wears a scarf draped diagonally from her left shoulder down to the right. She is adorned with a necklace, bracelets, a long skirt, and bare feet, standing on a raised lotus pedestal. Her body is shaped like an “S.” The depiction of female features is relatively subtle, and her demeanor is dignified and elegant, her expression tranquil. Combined with the well-preserved color on the stone sculptures of the Mogao Grottoes, the body and clothing have a very realistic texture.

The entry of Heavenly Kings into the ranks of attendants also occurred during the Tang Dynasty in the Mogao Grottoes. The earliest example can be seen in the 334th cave. In the 45th cave, two Heavenly Kings stand on either side of the two Bodhisattva attendants. They have high buns, wear armor, one hand rests on their waist, and the other holds a weapon. They are standing on Yakshas, their expressive demeanor creates a strong contrast with the tranquility of other figures.

[Image 4: Masterpiece among masterpieces: The seven colored clay Bodhisattva statues in the 45th cave]

Cliff-face statues and Nirvana statues are also new forms of sculptures from the Tang Dynasty in the Mogao Grottoes. The 96th and 130th caves each contain a seated Maitreya Buddha statue. The “North Statue” is 33 meters high, a seated Maitreya Buddha statue measuring 35.6 meters high, made of stone core with clay sculpture and painted. It is the third largest seated Buddha in China, after the Leshan Giant Buddha and the Rongxian Giant Buddha. The space for the large Buddha is wide at the bottom and narrow at the top, with a square floor plan. Two corridors are opened outside the building, providing a close-up view of the Buddha and serving as a source of light for the Buddha’s head and waist. The eaves of this cave existed before the first year of Tang Wende (888). At the time, it was five stories high. It was rebuilt in the fourth year of the Northern Song Dynasty’s Qiande reign (966) and the Qing Dynasty, reduced to four stories. It was renovated again in 1935, resulting in a nine-story structure. The “South Statue” is 26 meters high. Apart from the right hand which was not restored, the South Statue retains its original appearance.

[Image 5: The 33-meter high seated Maitreya Buddha statue, the “North Statue”]

The Mogao Grottoes also contain sculptures from the Tang dynasty Tubo Empire. In the second year of Emperor Daizong’s Dali reign (767), the Tubo launched an attack on Dunhuang. In 781, Dunhuang fell. During the Tubo occupation of Dunhuang, the Shazhou region where Dunhuang was located was under the control of the Guazhou Prefecture. The 13 townships under the jurisdiction of the original Dunhuang County were reorganized into 13 tribes, with a military and administrative system in place, and all monks and nuns were organized into a monastic tribe. The second year of Emperor Xuanzong’s Dazhong reign (848) marked the return of Dunhuang to the Tang central government after 67 years. The Tubo occupied the Mogao Grottoes for approximately the middle Tang Dynasty period. The construction of the Mogao Grottoes ceased for nearly 20 years due to the war, and it gradually recovered after 787. Initially, most of the work involved repairing and renovating unfinished caves from before the war. These early Tang caves, “with excavation but unfinished drawings,” were completed in the Tubo period, around 40 in total. In addition to these, the Tubo period also saw the construction of approximately 50 new stone caves in the Mogao Grottoes. Two of these caves have dated inscriptions, the 365th and 231st caves.

The 365th cave, also known as the Seven Buddha Hall, was built between 832 and 834 by Hongbian, the highest ranking monk in the Dunhuang region, who served as the Chief Professor. In the fifth year of Emperor Dazhong (851), Hongbian was bestowed with the title of “Chief Abbot of Hexi” by the Tang Dynasty. The “Great Tubo Shazhou Buddhist Professor Monk Hongbian Repairing Merit Record” records that Hongbian “opened the Seven Buddha Medicine Master Hall and built the Dharma Flower Immaculate Pagoda.” Today, the 365th cave is located directly next to the 366th cave above and the 16th cave below. These three caves should be considered a single project, commonly known as the “Three-Story Building.” Following the general rules of cave construction, the upper 366th cave is the oldest, followed by the 365th cave, and the 16th cave is the youngest. The original inscription of the 231st cave, the “Tubo Former Dunhuang County Mogao Grottoes Yin Chushi Gong Repairing Merit Record,” no longer exists. However, it is recorded in the Dunhuang manuscripts. The cave was built in 839.

The Tubo caves are mainly distributed in the middle lower level of the southern area and in the three-story sculptures between the north and south large statues. There are about three types of cave structures: 1) rectangular, inverted-bowl-shaped ceiling caves. This type of cave is the most numerous. It has a front and back chamber, and the main chamber has a spacious niche on the back wall, mostly continuing the previous style of construction. A few main niches have a coffered ceiling. 2) Nirvana caves. The floor plan is a horizontal rectangle, with a coffered ceiling. A Buddha bed is located on the lower part of the back wall, and a reclining Buddha is placed on top. 3) Tunnel caves. There is a Buddha altar in front of the back wall, and a tunnel is opened behind the Buddha altar, allowing devotees to circumambulate the Buddha.

In terms of sculptures, the colored clay sculptures of the Tubo period mostly follow the previous combination styles, including one row of five, seven, or nine figures. The main figure is often a seated Maitreya Buddha or Medicine Master Buddha. Large-scale Nirvana sculptures and esoteric Buddhist-themed sculptures that appeared in the early Tang Dynasty reappeared during the Tubo period. For example, the 158th cave is similar in size to the 148th cave, except that the reclining Buddha and its attendants are depicted in the form of murals. Buddhas often have snail-shaped hair. Loose robes with wide sleeves and robes draped over both shoulders and hung down are still common styles of Buddha robes. The Bodhisattva figure transformed from the “S” shape of the earlier period to a straight posture with fewer curves, which is characteristic of the Tubo period. There are not many changes in terms of facial features, skin, and ornaments.

[Image 6: The “Three-Story Building,” a newly excavated cave in the Mogao Grottoes during the Tubo period, and the sculptures inside the cave]

3. Bingling Temple Grottoes in Yongjing County, Gansu

For a general introduction to the grottoes, please refer to the “Wei, Jin, and Northern and Southern Dynasties” section. Here, we will briefly introduce the works of the Sui, Tang and Five Dynasties.

Among the 183 niches and nearly 800 Buddha sculptures of various sizes in the Bingling Temple Grottoes, Tang Dynasty works account for about two-thirds. These sculptures are plump and elegant, full of vitality and life. The temple contains the Great Buddha Cave, which was built in the Sui Dynasty. Inside, there is a 4-meter-tall Maitreya Buddha statue with a plump and full expression, a typical Sui Dynasty sculpture style. The Tang Dynasty sculpture of a maid, 25 cm high, is one of the most precious sculptures in China. Her plump and delicate figure, her carefree expression, and her elegant and magnificent attire evoke the prosperity of the Tang Dynasty.

The 171st niche, a 27-meter-tall cliff-face sculpture of the seated Shakyamuni Buddha, is the representative work of this grotto and was built during the prosperous Tang Dynasty. The upper body is carved from the mountain rock, while the lower body is made of clay and sculpted. Legend has it that it was sculpted by artisans who accompanied Princess Wencheng when she entered Tibet. The Buddha’s head originally had seven-story pagoda buildings, which were later destroyed in war. Over the centuries, the Great Buddha has become weathered and scarred. To support the application for World Heritage status for the “Silk Road: Starting Point and Tian Shan Corridor,” the State Administration of Cultural Heritage began focusing on the archaeological restoration of the Great Buddha’s face, hands, and feet in June 2011, following the principle of “not changing the original state of the cultural relic.” The base of the Great Buddha was also reinforced.

[Image 7: The 171st niche cliff-face sculpture of the seated Shakyamuni Buddha in the Bingling Temple Grottoes; Image 8: Tang Dynasty sculpture of a maid]

4. The North and South Grottoes of Qingyang, Gansu Province

For an overview of the grottoes, please refer to the section “The Wei, Jin, and Northern and Southern Dynasties”. Here, we provide a brief introduction to the works of the Sui, Tang, and Five Dynasties periods.

The North and South Grottoes contain 296 caves and niches, with 2,126 stone sculptures. Two-thirds of these are from the Tang dynasty, with 198 caves and niches.

Cave 222 is one of the representative caves from the Tang dynasty, located in the middle of the northern section of the grottoes. Built during the prosperous Tang era, it is a cave dedicated to Zen meditation. It is 6.10 meters high, 6.10 meters wide, 6.48 meters deep, and has an inverted-bowl shaped ceiling with a platform on the main wall. The main wall features a Buddha with two disciples and two Bodhisattvas. The Buddha is 4.05 meters tall, the disciples are 2.8 meters tall, and the Bodhisattvas are 3 meters tall. The Buddha is depicted with a high, polished ushnisha (topknot), a round face, thin eyebrows, large eyes, a large nose, a square mouth, broad shoulders, and a round waist. He wears a draped kasaya (robe) and sits in a cross-legged position on a square platform with his feet resting on a semi-circular lotus throne. The disciples and Bodhisattvas stand in attendance.

This cave is one of the most complete examples of Tang dynasty sculptures in the North Grottoes. The sculpting is skillful and the style is simple and elegant. It has significant historical and artistic value. The main figure is strong and dignified, while the disciples and Bodhisattvas are graceful and smiling, likely representing the Maitreya Buddha preaching his Dharma.

In addition to the large sculptures on the main wall, the south, north, and west walls of the cave are filled with small niches, primarily divided into four layers, containing a total of 62 niches and 217 statues. These niches are mostly square, with a rounded arch or rectangular shape. Each niche contains a sculpture of either a Buddha with two Bodhisattvas or a Buddha with two disciples. The Buddhas all sit cross-legged, while the disciples or Bodhisattvas stand in attendance. Most of the sculptures are well preserved. The entire cave is opulent and solemn. The sculptures in the small niches are particularly detailed and vivid, especially those in the lower layers, with their drapery flowing like spring water. The Bodhisattvas have high, elaborate hair buns, their upper bodies are bare, and they wear long, narrow skirts, with flowing silk garments draped over their bodies, sometimes raised with one hand, creating a variety of forms and variations. The bodies are lively and graceful, the lines are elegant and graceful, full of emotion, revealing a vibrant youthful energy.

Inside the North Grottoes, on the north and south sides of the entrance, are four long, rectangular shallow niches, each carved with a Buddha, two disciples, and two Bodhisattvas. This cave contains works from three dynasties: sculptures from the Northern Zhou dynasty when the cave was first opened, small niches added during the prosperous Tang dynasty, and clay sculptures painted in the Qing dynasty. The styles of each period are distinct: The Northern Zhou dynasty inherited the excellent traditions of its predecessors, with a significant development and diversity in the sculpting. The prosperous Tang era was a golden age for Chinese culture, and the sculpture is skillful and lifelike, full of vitality, with beautifully textured garments that seem to sway. In the late Qing dynasty, political corruption, economic collapse, and social unrest led to a decline in the arts, resulting in a rigid and crude style. This cave is a testament to the history of the North Grottoes.

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The image shows a sculpture of a Buddha with two disciples on the main wall of Cave 222, one of the representative caves from the Tang dynasty in the North and South Grottoes of Qingyang.

5. The Tianlongshan Grottoes of Taiyuan, Shanxi Province

For an overview of the grottoes, please refer to the section “The Wei, Jin, and Northern and Southern Dynasties”. Here, we provide a brief introduction to the works of the Sui, Tang, and Five Dynasties periods.

The Tianlong Temple currently contains 25 caves with over 1,500 statues. Only one cave, Cave 8, is from the Sui dynasty, and the inscription on the stele at the entrance of the cave states that it was built in the fourth year of the Kaihuang reign period (585) of Emperor Wen of Sui, indicating that there was a large-scale construction of grottoes at that time. Jinyang was the “place of origin” of Li Yuan, the founder of the Tang dynasty, and therefore held an important position as a secondary capital during the Tang dynasty. Buddhism flourished in this area, and the majority of the caves at Tianlongshan were built during the Tang dynasty. Fifteen caves remain, almost four-fifths of the total number. The Tang dynasty caves at Tianlongshan are similar to the Tang dynasty caves at Longmen, Qingyang, and Mount Sumeru, in terms of cave shape and statues. The dates of construction range from the prosperous Tang era to the late Tang period.

The shape of the Tang dynasty caves can be divided into three types: square front and back chambers, round front and back chambers, and round single chambers. The statue compositions are primarily centered around three walls and three Buddhas, with the main Buddha being a cross-legged seated Shakyamuni, a Maitreya Buddha, or an Amitabha Buddha. These are often combined with one Buddha, two standing Bodhisattvas, and two seated Bodhisattvas; or one Buddha, two disciples, two standing Bodhisattvas, and two seated Bodhisattvas. The proportion between the head and body of the Buddhas and Bodhisattvas is harmonious, with full faces. The Buddha’s head features a high ushnisha with wave or spiral patterns, and they wear a right-shoulder bare or a full-shoulder draped kasaya. The skirt of the robe falls to the front of the seat in an inverted mountain shape, and the drapery is highly three-dimensional. The Bodhisattvas have a high hair bun, full faces, a flower-shaped collar around their neck, followed by a string of beaded necklaces, a flowing scarf that drapes naturally, and a shawl that drapes diagonally from their shoulder, revealing their body. From an overall conceptual perspective, the graceful postures and elaborate decorations reflect the grand and unrestrained decorative style of the Tang dynasty. The powerful figures are bare-chested and wear a robe. All of the sculptures are expertly crafted, with skillful sculpting, appropriate proportions, and accurate forms, with a strong sense of realism. The statues in Cave 18 sit calmly and are lifelike, with the effect of translucent gauze enhancing the fullness of their skin, making it seem elastic. This is a prime example of the realistic style of the Tang dynasty. The statues in Cave 17 have clear drapery, deep lines, and incorporate Gandharan ornamentation with traditional Chinese methods of expression. Buddhism during the Tang dynasty emphasized devotion to Avalokiteshvara (Guanyin), and from the Yong Hui period (650-655) onward, the number of Avalokiteshvara statues steadily increased. The Avalokiteshvara statues in the Tianlongshan grottoes have graceful postures, charming faces, and reflect the style of Tang dynasty sculpture.

The West Peak, Cave 9 (Manshan Pavilion) is a masterpiece of the Tianlongshan grottoes, built during the Yong Hui period (650-655), and considered a masterpiece of the middle to late Tang period. Its grand scale and magnificent grandeur have earned it international fame. It is a large cave with two levels. A majestic wooden pavilion was built above the cave to protect the stone sculptures, and is known as “Manshan Pavilion”. The Manshan Pavilion has four eaves and a hip roof, reaching the height of the mountain, making it a truly grand sight. The wind chimes ring, and the view from up close is breathtaking. From afar, the pavilion seems to be embedded in the sheer cliffs like a celestial palace. It is divided into three levels. There is a wooden staircase on the north side, allowing visitors to climb up and down to see the sculptures up close. On the top level is an 8-meter tall seated statue of Maitreya Buddha. The Maitreya Buddha statue is about 8 meters tall, with a square and round face, a full and elegant expression, a dignified posture, and harmonious proportions. On the lower level, the central figure is an 11-headed Avalokiteshvara statue, standing 11 meters tall. The Avalokiteshvara statue has ten smaller Avalokiteshvara images sculpted on its head, facing the ten directions. The Avalokiteshvara statue has a beautiful and serene face, with a quiet and elegant air. It has a graceful and light body, with its right leg slightly bent, its hips tilted slightly to the left, and its weight slightly shifted to the left foot, emphasizing a humble and natural stance. Necklaces and ribbons are draped over the body, with the gauze flowing smoothly, emphasizing the character of the main figure. The sculpture is very textured and has a powerful artistic impact. On either side are Samantabhadra, riding an elephant, and Manjusri, riding a lion. The Samantabhadra statue has a smiling face, with a serene and relaxed expression. It is a masterpiece of stone sculpture. The lion and elephant under Manjusri are majestic and lively, with a sense of spirituality. The Bodhisattva on top is peaceful and serene, with a smiling face and a relaxed expression, demonstrating a high level of realism. This is another masterpiece of Tang dynasty sculpture. There are numerous bas-relief figures carved into the back wall, all seated cross-legged on lotus thrones. The use of detail to complement simplicity is a brilliant idea. The majority of these figures are from the Tang dynasty.

The Manshan Pavilion is also known as the Maitreya Pavilion. During the Northern Han dynasty (951-979), there was already a large Maitreya Pavilion. In the early Zhengde period (1505-1521) of the Ming dynasty, another high pavilion was built to protect the stone Buddha. In the early 1920s, the grottoes were severely damaged by foreign invaders, and many of the finest pieces were stolen and taken abroad. They are now scattered in Japan and other countries in Europe and America. The current pavilion was rebuilt in 1986. The Manshan Pavilion was rebuilt on the foundation of the original Ming dynasty pavilion between 1985 and 1987, with an investment of over one million yuan from the government. It is now a landmark of Tianlongshan.

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The images show the Manshan Pavilion and an 11-headed Avalokiteshvara statue, standing 6 meters tall, on the lower level of the Manshan Pavilion.

6. The Stone Sculptures of Mount Qixia, Nanjing

For an overview of the grottoes, please refer to the section “The Wei, Jin, and Northern and Southern Dynasties”. Here, we provide a brief introduction to the works of the Sui, Tang, and Five Dynasties periods.

The Sarira Pagoda at the back of the Qixia Temple was initially built in the first year of the Renshou reign period (601) of Emperor Ren of Sui. The existing octagonal, multi-eaved stone pagoda is the result of reconstruction during the Southern Tang dynasty by Gao Yue and Lin Ren Zhao. The pagoda is a multi-eaved structure with five levels and eight sides. It is divided into three parts: the base, the body, and the finial. It is 18 meters tall and is constructed entirely from white limestone. The base has three layers: the foundation, the base, and the upturned lotus base. The foundation is decorated with carved dragons, phoenixes, fish, and turtles, all swimming in the sea and among the clouds. The side panels feature carved pomegranates and phoenixes. The upper and lower parts of the base are decorated with carved overlapping layers, with side panels featuring carved lotus, pomegranates, lions, and phoenixes. The middle part of the base is octagonal, and each of the eight corners has a carved semi-circular column with a relief sculpture of a powerful figure and a standing dragon. Between the columns are relief sculptures of the Eight Auspicious Events of the Buddha Shakyamuni.

The upturned lotus base, with three layers of lotus petals, rests on the base and supports the body of the pagoda. The body has five levels, and each level has a wide, projecting eaves with curved eaves, carved round lotus-shaped tiles and overlapping dripping gutters. The back end of the pagoda is decorated with dragon heads. The first level is higher, about 3 meters tall. There are relief sculptures of flying figures on the eaves stones, and each of the eight corners has a carved imitation wooden pillar with a frieze. On the east and west sides, the central sections feature relief sculptures of Manjusri and Samantabhadra. On the north and south sides are carved stone doors, with the door pillars inscribed with scriptures. The remaining four sides each have a carved statue of a heavenly king. The second level is about 1 meter tall, and the height of the remaining levels decreases with each level. There are no doors on the remaining levels. Each of the eight sides of these levels features two carved, round arched stone niches, each containing a seated Buddha in relief. Between each of the two sides is a stone pillar, with the Diamond Sutra carved onto it. The heavenly king figures on the sides are also carved with the inscriptions “Made by the stone worker Wang Wen Zai” and “Made by Ding Yan Gui, stone worker Xu Zhi Qian”. The finial of the pagoda has five levels, each with lotus decoration. This multi-eaved pagoda with a base is the earliest example of this type of pagoda.

The overall structure of the pagoda is compact, with beautiful decorations. It is an important example of the architecture of the Southern Tang dynasty. In 1988, the State Council of the People’s Republic of China declared it a nationally protected cultural relic. Because the pagoda was severely damaged, it was restored in 1931 by the architect Liu Dun Zhen, who designed the construction and largely returned it to its original state.

On the right side of the Qixia Temple gate is the famous “Ming Zheng Jun Stele”. The inscription was written by Emperor Gaozong of Tang (Li Zhi) and the calligraphy was by Gao Zheng Chen, a famous calligrapher. It was erected in the third year of the Shangyuan period (676). The inscription is a biography of Ming Sheng Shao, written in parallel prose. It is one of the earliest steles in the running script style among extant Tang dynasty steles.

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The image shows the Sarira Pagoda of the Qixia Temple.

7. The Stone Pagoda of the Longxing Temple, Xinhui

Located in the town of Huicheng, Xinhui City, on Mount Ma. The pagoda was originally located in the Longxing Temple at the foot of Mount Dayun. The temple was initially built during the Sui dynasty, originally called Hong Hua Temple. During the Song dynasty, it was renamed “Longxing Temple” based on the name of the mountain, “Dayun”, and using the idiom “Clouds follow the dragon”. The pagoda was repaired several times. During the Daoguang reign period (1821-1850) of the Qing dynasty, the temple was destroyed but the pagoda remained. In the 18th year of the Republic of China (1929), the Zhongshan Park was built, and the pagoda was moved to Mount Xishan. In 1998, it was moved again to the foot of Mount Ma. The octagonal pagoda has five levels and is solid, with a height of 4 meters. The base is made from red sandstone and is 1.32 meters tall. The pagoda has a base with eight sides and two layers, each side is 0.7 meters wide. The lower part of the lower layer has a simple niche with a vaulted door and a large arch. The upper two levels of the pagoda are made of blue and red/grey sandstone, and the lower three levels are made of granite, with each level decreasing in size. The tallest single level is 0.5 meters tall, the widest single side is 0.46 meters wide, the shortest level is 0.32 meters tall, and the narrowest side is 0.18 meters wide. The pagoda has wide eaves that project outward. The eight corners of the pagoda rise up, and each eaves is carved from stone. The base of the pagoda’s finial is like an upturned lotus, with eight petals that are thick and rustic. There is a mortise and tenon joint on the top of the lotus. Unfortunately, the original finial is missing. In 1985, a pearl was embedded in the upturned lotus to serve as a finial.

The body of the pagoda is severely weathered, and some of the vaulted doors are only visible as outlines. In July 1962, the People’s Committee of Guangdong Province declared it a protected cultural relic.

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The image shows the stone pagoda of the Longxing Temple.

8. The Mogao Grottoes of Mount Maiji, Tianshui, Gansu Province

In the 22nd year of the Kaiyuan period (734) of the Tang dynasty, a strong earthquake caused the middle part of the cliff face of the Mogao Grottoes to collapse, dividing the grottoes into two sections: the East Cliff and the West Cliff. The East Cliff still contains 54 caves, while the West Cliff contains 140 caves.

Very few of the caves from the Sui and Tang dynasties survived the earthquake, with Cave 5 (Niuer Tang) being a representative example. It is located on the highest point of the west side of the East Cliff. It was built at the end of the Sui dynasty and the beginning of the Tang dynasty, and was repaired during the Song and Ming dynasties. It is a cliff cave with a form inspired by wooden architecture. In front of the cave is a corridor, and behind it are two niches in one cave, creating a “three-form Buddha”. The middle cave contains a Buddha with two disciples and four Bodhisattvas, representing a style from the end of the Sui dynasty and the early Tang dynasty. On either side of the middle cave are two large, round-arched niches, each containing a Buddha with two Bodhisattvas. The Bodhisattvas have elaborate flower garlands and crowns, dignified and delicate faces, half-bare chests, exposed arms, full bodies, but distinct postures and garments. Their bodies are slightly twisted in a curve, making them graceful and elegant. On the right side of the corridor outside the middle niche is a statue of a Heavenly King, wearing armor, with bulging eyes and a fierce expression, standing on the back of a recumbent calf. The calf lifts its head and bends its knees, struggling to get up, in a very lifelike pose. Folklore says that the Heavenly King should be standing on a lotus, but the calf in the corridor is actually a divine bull with immense strength. If it roars, the heavens will collapse and the earth will shatter, bringing disaster to all living beings. One day, the Heavenly King discovered that the calf was stretching out its neck, preparing to leap up and roar, so he quickly stepped on its back and pinned it to the ground, creating its current form. As a result, this cave is called “Niuer Tang” (The Calf Cave).

The paintings on the walls of the “Niuer Tang” cave, depicting a row of donors, are invaluable resources for studying Tang dynasty clothing and other aspects of the era.

Cave 37 is a Sui dynasty cave. It has a round, arched niche, with the front part destroyed. Inside the niche is a seated Buddha, and on the right side is a Bodhisattva serving as a side attendant. The main Buddha is 2.10 meters tall and has a flat, spiral ushnisha (topknot), which is slightly damaged. The face is round, and the Buddha wears a draped kasaya (robe), sitting in a cross-legged position on a square platform with his feet resting on a semi-circular lotus throne. The body is strong and the expression is serene. The Bodhisattva on the right is 1.85 meters tall and has a high hair bun and a decorated crown. The face is full, the body is long and slender, and the hands are crossed naturally at the chest, creating a graceful pose. The sculpting is concise and vivid. It is one of the finest examples of Sui dynasty sculpture at Mount Maiji.

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The image shows Cave 5, “Niuer Tang”, from the Tang dynasty at Mount Maiji.

9. The Stone Bell Mountain Grottoes of Jianchuan, Yunnan Province

Located in Jianchuan County in the Dali Bai Autonomous Prefecture of Yunnan Province. Because it is situated in the Shibao Mountain Range, it is also known as the Shibao Mountain Grottoes. It was declared a nationally protected cultural relic by the State Council in 1962.

The grottoes were first carved during the reign of King Quan Feng You of Nanzhao, and continued until the middle period of the Duan Dynasty of Dali, from the middle of the 9th century to the second half of the 12th century, corresponding to the first year of the Huichang period of Emperor Wuzong of Tang (841) (some say it corresponds to the fourth year of the Dazhong period of Emperor Xuanzong of Tang, 850) to the sixth year of the Chunxi period of Emperor Xiaozong of Song (1179). They are examples of Bai ethnic art.

The grottoes are divided into three sections: Sha Deng Village, Stone Bell Temple, and Lion Pass. They contain a total of 17 caves with 139 sculptures, dating from the Nanzhao and Dali kingdoms, with a few from the Yuan and Ming dynasties.

The carvings at Sha Deng Village are located on the cliffs on either side of the ancient road. They include four carvings: a Maitreya Buddha, an Amitabha Buddha, and Heavenly Kings. The carvings date back to the eleventh year of the Tianqi period of King Quan Feng You, the tenth king of Nanzhao, also known as the first year of the Huichang period of Emperor Wuzong of Tang (841). The niches behind Sha Deng Village are shallow and undecorated. The Buddha heads are all high and spiral-shaped, with full faces, reflecting a style similar to the prosperous Tang dynasty.

The Stone Bell Temple contains eight caves. The first and second caves are both carved with statues of Nanzhao rulers. The attire of the rulers and their attendants are precious resources for studying the clothing system of Nanzhao. Caves three through seven feature statues of Shakyamuni Buddha, Bodhisattvas, Ananda, Kasyapa, and Arhats. Cave 6 is the largest, at 11.64 meters long, and features Shakyamuni Buddha, his disciples, the Eight Great Ming Kings, Dvārapāla (the guardian deity of the four directions), and the Grower King. Cave 8 is now in ruins. The earliest carvings date back to the fourth year of the Shengde period of Duan Zhi Xing of the Dali kingdom, the sixth year of the Chunxi period of Emperor Xiaozong of Song (1179). Subsequent inscriptions from the Yuan dynasty (1271-1368) mention the Zhiyuan, Zhizheng, and Xuan Guang periods, and the Yongle and Yongli periods of the Ming dynasty (1368-1644).

There are three carvings at Lion Pass. The first is a grotto discovered in 1951, containing statues of a ruler and his queen. The second is a figure carved into the cliffs at Lion Pass, known locally as the “Drunkard Statue”. The third is a statue of “Persians” carved into a large rock on the road from Lion Pass to Stone Bell Temple.

The most notable carvings are the “阁逻凤议政图” (Ge Luo Feng Discussing Government Affairs) in Cave 2 of the Stone Bell Temple section, and the “全家福” (Family Portrait) in Cave 9 of the Lion Pass section. Cave 2 (also known as the “Earth Deity Cave”) has a large scene with many officials holding insignia and a majestic air. It depicts Ge Luo Feng, the Nanzhao king, in all his glory. The grottoes depict three generations of Nanzhao rulers: Xin Nu Luo, Ge Luo Feng, and Yi Mou Xun, who are all highly representative figures. These images reflect the history of Nanzhao. They are not only precious examples of Nanzhao art but are also valuable historical documents. The clothing and insignia of the figures are true to the originals, making them invaluable resources for studying the history of Nanzhao and the Bai ethnicity. They provide precious information about the politics, military, culture, clothing, and customs of Nanzhao.

The other grottoes feature carvings of Nanzhao rulers such as Xin Nu Luo, Ge Luo Feng, and Yi Mou Xun, along with notable figures in Nanzhao history, such as the monk Ge Pi, Qing Ping Guan, and Yu Yi Chang, all depicted with a lively energy. The Buddhas and Bodhisattvas in the grottoes are delicate and exquisite, with noble faces. The Eight Ming Kings, Dvārapāla, and the Great Black God are rough and bold, with a great deal of texture. This is the ancestor of the Southern Ming King figure, which spread from Liangshan (a mountain in Sichuan) to Sichuan and then to the lower reaches of the Yangtze River, developing into the Ten Ming Kings and the Twelve Great Ming Kings. The grottoes also include carvings of foreigners and monks from different countries, including a female monk wearing a felt robe and Persians. The sculptures in the Stone Bell Mountain Grottoes blend together styles from the interior of China, Tibet, India, and local traditions. They are a unique pearl within the world of Buddhist stone grotto art, with distinct local ethnic characteristics.

Another noteworthy feature is the lifelike religious figures. The majority of the sculptures in the grottoes are of religious figures, such as Guanyin (Avalokiteshvara), Ananda, Kasyapa, Manjusri, Samantabhadra, the Eight Great Ming Kings, Dvārapāla, the Grower King, and many more. These figures are mostly carved with great detail and a lively sense of individuality. For example, the Guanyin figures vary greatly under the hands of the sculptors, including the “All-Seeing Guanyin”, the “Dew Guanyin”, and the “Slender Guanyin”, all with strong esoteric Buddhist characteristics. Some caves, such as the “Three Saints of Hua Yan” cave and the “Vimalakīrti Sūtra Preaching” cave, reflect the influence of the Mahayana Buddhism of the interior of China.

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The images show the stone sculpture “阁逻凤议政图” (Ge Luo Feng Discussing Government Affairs) at the Stone Bell Mountain Grottoes, and a stone sculpture of a Bai dance.

10. The Dazu Grottoes of Sichuan Province

The Dazu Stone Carvings include over 70 sites with over 100,000 sculptures. The most famous are the Baoding Mountain and the Beishan (North Mountain) cliff carvings, which are primarily Buddhist sculptures and are considered to be the best examples of late Chinese stone grotto art. They are considered to be on par with the four great Chinese grottoes, the Mogao Grottoes of Dunhuang, the Yungang Grottoes, the Longmen Grottoes, and the Mount Maiji Grottoes. They are a nationally protected cultural relic and are included in the UNESCO World Heritage List.

Construction of the sculptures began in the first year of the Jingfu period of the Late Tang dynasty (892), and continued through the Five Dynasties period (907-960) – the Later Liang, Later Tang, Later Jin, Later Han, and Later Zhou dynasties – until 1162 of the Southern Song dynasty, a total of 250 years. There are 264 niches with sculptures, with over 4,600 sculptures remaining today. They are primarily Buddhist in theme, but also include Confucian and Daoist sculptures. The most notable are the Beishan Cliff Carvings and the Baoding Mountain Cliff Carvings. The Beishan Cliff Carvings are located on Beishan (North Mountain), 1.5 kilometers north of Dazu District in Chongqing Municipality. The sculpting styles include round sculpture, high relief, low relief, convex relief, and intaglio, with high relief being the primary style and the others serving as complements. They include countless figures from all levels of society, as well as numerous scenes of daily life, and are accompanied by a large number of inscriptions, forming a vivid historical tableau. The Late Tang sculptures on Beishan are dignified and full, with a substantial air. The drapery is detailed and the thin garments are tightly fitted, reflecting the legacy of the prosperous Tang dynasty. Cave 245, featuring the “觀無量寿佛經變相” (Visualization of the Sutra of Amitabha Buddha), is particularly noteworthy for its rich content and clear layers. It includes 539 figures and over 460 objects, preserving a wealth of visual historical information. It is unparalleled among Chinese grotto sculptures of similar themes.

Five Dynasties works account for over one-third of the sculptures on Beishan, making it the region with the largest number of sculptures from this period. They played an important role in transitioning from the Tang to the Song dynasties. Their characteristics include small and delicate sculptures, varied postures, graceful expressions, and increasingly elaborate decorations, showing a transitional style between the Tang and Song dynasties.

The Dafo Bay is located in a “U”-shaped mountain bay to the left and below the Shengshou Temple. The cliff face is about 500 meters long and 8-25 meters high. Sculptures are carved into the cliff face on the east, south, and north sides, and are numbered 1-31. They include statues of guardian deities, the “Six Paths of Reincarnation”, the “Great Treasure Pavilion”, the “Three Saints of Hua Yan”, Thousand-Armed Guanyin, stories of the Buddha’s life, the “Buddha’s Nirvana”, the “Nine Dragons Bathing the Prince”, the “Peacock Ming King Sutra Transformation Scene”, the “Bīrū Cave”, the “Parents’ Benevolence Sutra Transformation Scene”, the “Thunder Sound Cave”, the “Great Conveniences Buddha Repays Kindness Sutra Transformation Scene”, the “Visualization of the Sutra of Amitabha Buddha”, the “Six Consuming Demon” diagram, the “Hell Transformation Scene”, the “Willow Buddha’s Journeys”, the “Ten Great Ming Kings”, the “Herding Oxen” scene, the “Yuanjue Cave”, and the “Willow Buddha’s Attainment of Enlightenment” statue. All of the sculptures are richly detailed and have inscriptions. No two niches are the same.

The Xiaofobo Bay is located to the right of the Shengshou Temple, facing south. Its main structure is a stone platform, 2.31 meters high, 16.50 meters wide east-west, and 7.90 meters deep. The stone platform has stone walls and a stone chamber built from long stones, covered with carvings of Buddhas and Bodhisattvas, numbered 1-9. The main sculptures include the “Ancestor’s Dharma Body Sutra Eye Pagoda”, the “Seven Buddhas Niche Wall”, the “Repay Kindness Sutra Transformation Cave”, the “Hall Moon Wheel Buddha Niche”, the “Ten Evils Retribution Diagram”, the “Bīrū Temple Cave”, the “Three Saints of Hua Yan Cave”, and the “Conferring Empowerment Well Niche”.

The Shizhuan Mountain cliff sculptures are a rare example of sculptures that combine Confucianism, Daoism, and Buddhism, a rare phenomenon in the world of grottoes. Niche number 6 is a niche containing Confucius and his ten disciples. Confucius is seated in the center of the main wall, wearing a cap, sitting with a formal posture, and wearing a round-necked, wide-sleeved long robe. He is wearing a jade belt, holding a palm-leaf fan, and wearing cloud-patterned boots, standing on two square tables. There are five disciples on either side of Confucius, standing in a row, from the inside out: On the left are Yan Hui, Min Zun, Ran You, Yan Yan, and Duanmu Ci; on the right are Zhong You, Ran Geng, Zai Wo, Ran Qiu, and Xia Shang. All of the ten disciples are wearing crowns and round-necked, wide-sleeved long robes with jade belts and cloud-patterned boots. This is truly a unique feature among grotto sculptures. Niche number 7 contains three Buddhas. Niche number 8 contains Laozi, the founder of Daoism, seated in the center, with seven real people and priests standing on either side. According to the inscriptions on the statues, these three niches were carved at the expense of Yan Xun, a large landowner, and sculpted by famous sculptors of the time, such as Wen Wei Jian.

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The images show Chinese stamps featuring the Dazu stone sculptures “养鸡女” (The Woman Raising Chickens) and “牧牛图” (The Herding Oxen Scene).

11. The Leshan Giant Buddha of Sichuan Province

Also known as the Lingyun Giant Buddha, it is located on the east bank of the Minjiang River in Leshan City, Sichuan Province, near the confluence of the Dadu River, the Qingyi River, and the Minjiang River. The Buddha is a seated Maitreya Buddha, 71 meters tall. It is known as “The Mountain is a Buddha, the Buddha is a Mountain”, and is the largest single-piece cliff-side sculpture in China, as well as the largest stone Buddha in the world.

The Buddha sits with his hands resting on his knees, with a dignified posture. The drainage system is cleverly concealed. Construction of the statue began in the early years of the Kaiyuan period (713) of Emperor Xuanzong of Tang. The monk Hai Tong initiated the construction of the Buddha to reduce the power of the water, and to save all living beings. He mobilized manpower and material resources to carry out the project. After Hai Tong passed away, the project was halted, and it was only later, after many years, that the project was continued by Zhang Qiu Jianqiong and Wei Gao, the military governors of Jiannan West Sichuan. It was finally completed in the 19th year of the Zhenyuan period (803) of Emperor Dezong of Tang, taking 90 years in all.

The head of the Leshan Giant Buddha is level with the mountain, its feet tread on the great river, and its hands rest on its knees. The statue is well-proportioned and solemn. It was carved into the side of the mountain and sits in a precarious position overlooking the river. The Buddha is 71 meters tall, its head is 14.7 meters tall and 10 meters wide, its hair bun has 1,051 strands, its ears are 6.7 meters long, its nose and eyebrows are 5.6 meters long, its mouth and eyes are 3.3 meters long, its neck is 3 meters tall, its shoulders are 24 meters wide, its fingers are 8.3 meters long, the distance from its knees to the back of its feet is 28 meters, the back of its feet are 9 meters wide, and its feet are large enough for over 100 people to sit on. On the cliff faces on either side of the Buddha, facing the river, are two stone carvings of Heavenly King figures, each over 16 meters tall. Together with the Buddha, they form a composition of one Buddha and two Heavenly Kings. There are also hundreds and thousands of other stone sculptures that coexist with the Heavenly Kings, forming a vast collection of Buddhist stone sculpture art.

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The image shows the Leshan Giant Buddha.

12. The Statues on Feilai Peak at Lingyin Temple in Hangzhou

These are located on Feilai Peak, in front of Lingyin Temple in Hangzhou, Zhejiang Province. In 1982, the State Council declared Feilai Peak statues as the second batch of national key cultural relics protection units.

Feilai Peak features 345 stone carvings from the Five Dynasties period to the Yuan dynasty, each housed in a niche. Most niches contain one statue, but some have two, three, or even four, with the largest containing 19 statues. There are 11 statues with inscriptions from the Five Dynasties period or in the style of that era. The Five Dynasties period statues are smaller in size and were mostly carved inside and outside Qinglindong Cave. The earliest statue is the Amitabha Buddha, Guanyin, and Mahasthamaprapta tri-buddha statue, carved by Teng Shaozong in the first year of the Guangshun era (951) of the Later Zhou Dynasty. Located at the southern entrance of Qinglindong Cave, the niche is horizontally elongated, 160 centimeters high and 210 centimeters wide, with an arched top, and is well-preserved. The three Buddha statues have clear eyebrows and eyes, with compassionate expressions, and all sit in the meditative posture. They sit on a high, waisted lotus pedestal with a Sumeru base. Behind each statue is a flame-shaped nimbus, still retaining the style of the late Tang Dynasty. The central statue is Amitabha Buddha, standing 90 centimeters tall. He has a high ushnisha (topknot), conch-shaped hair, long ears that hang down, and eyes looking straight ahead. He wears a half-shouldered kasaya (robe) with his right arm exposed, and his hands are clasped together. The flanking attendants Guanyin and Mahasthamaprapta Bodhisattva are each 65 centimeters tall, slightly leaning towards the central Buddha. They wear crowns, with jeweled pendants hanging down. They have jeweled necklaces draped over their chests, bangles on their wrists, and celestial garments draped over their bodies with gauzy fabric.

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Feilai Peak Five Dynasties period stone tri-buddha statue of Amitabha Buddha, Guanyin, and Mahasthamaprapta

13. Tang Dynasty Seated Guanyin Bodhisattva Statue from Jinglongchi Temple in Xi’an’s East Gate

This is one of the exquisite Tang Dynasty stone sculptures. It was unearthed from the ruins of Jinglongchi in Xi’an. Jinglongchi was the Xingqing Palace in the Tang Dynasty’s Chang’an City. Emperor Xuanzong of Tang built many palaces and towers in Xingqing Palace. This Guanyin statue came from the imperial palace, adding to its inherent value.

The Guanyin statue was originally placed in the Jinglongchi Temple in Xi’an’s East Gate. The temple was destroyed in 1952, and the statue was moved to the Shaanxi Provincial Museum where it is now housed. It is 73 centimeters tall. The Bodhisattva wears a jeweled crown with a decorative jewel hanging down from it, covering her shoulders. She has fine hair styled in a high bun. Her face is round, her nose is straight, and her eyes are beautiful. Her mouth curves with a hint of affection, and her long ears are adorned with dangling earrings. The lines of her neck are prominent, and her head is slightly tilted. Her hands are clasped in front of her chest holding a lotus bud. Her right arm is bare, and her abdomen is exposed. She wears jeweled decorations on her body, a sash tied around her chest, and a hanging sash that falls down onto the pedestal. Her waist garment features flowing pleats. Her right foot is turned upwards in a “lucky” sitting position. She has a full figure, with a gentle and compassionate expression. She sits serenely upon a round, waisted lotus pedestal. The surface of the pedestal is adorned with a lotus pod with stamens, surrounded by three layers of lotus petals that are half open and have buds. Each petal features a jeweled decoration. The waisted section is adorned with a leafy lotus stem-bud style bas-relief. Beneath that is a round, single-petal shaped decorative strip. The round pedestal is divided into six sections, each rectangular and featuring a decorative border. Inside each section is a sculpted figure of a musician playing a different instrument, such as a bamboo flute, a transverse flute, or a waist drum. The pedestal’s sculptures are perfectly sculpted, primitive and clear, beautiful and grand.

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14. Tang Dynasty Guanyin Bodhisattva Head from the Ruins of Wanfo Temple in Chengdu

This stone head of Guanyin Bodhisattva was unearthed in Chengdu’s western suburbs at the Wanfo Temple. Wanfo Temple was once a famous ancient Buddhist temple in Chengdu, located near Tongjin Bridge. Legend has it that it was built in the Yanxi era (158-167) of the Eastern Han Dynasty. For over a thousand years, from the Southern Dynasties to the Ming Dynasty, incense burned continuously in this temple. According to records and inscriptions found on the unearthed statues, the temple was called Anpu Temple during the Southern Dynasties, Jingzhong Temple during the Tang Dynasty, Jingyin Temple during the Song Dynasty, and Wanfo Temple during the Ming Dynasty. It was destroyed by war in the late Ming Dynasty. In 1953, during construction of a building on the former site of Wanfo Temple, over one hundred stone carvings were discovered. Four or five of these had year inscriptions, dating from the Liang Dynasty to the Tang Dynasty. Most of the statues were damaged, but were also exquisitely made. Two of the Bodhisattva heads were recorded as Tang Dynasty stone carvings.

Tang Dynasty Buddhist statues show a significant decrease in religious characteristics, but a notable increase in artistic and realistic aspects, particularly in realism. People transitioned from Buddhist ideas of escaping the world to engaging in the world, from relying on deities to using deities to depict earthly life. As a result, portraiture was popular in the Tang Dynasty, and this was reflected in both sculpture and painting. During this period, Buddhist statues became representations of beautiful images from real life. They were no longer deities in religious idols, but incarnations of earthly beauty, kindness, and goodness. This Buddhist head sculpture clearly reflects the characteristics of that era: the eyes, ears, mouth, and nose are all realistically sculpted, and the details are meticulously carved. The facial bones and muscles are accurately depicted, including the smile, and the exquisite jeweled crown on her head and the crown’s jeweled and plant-like decorations reflect the excellence of Tang Dynasty sculptural art. Her full cheeks and phoenix-like eyes reflect the aesthetic standards of the Tang Dynasty, resembling a portrait of a Tang Dynasty noble girl, like the Virgin Mary portrayed by Renaissance masters Raphael and Titian. She no longer embodies the holiness of a “heavenly mother”, but represents a beautiful and kind young woman from the streets of Florence.

These two stone sculptures are currently displayed in the Sichuan Provincial Museum, and are praised as “Eastern beauties.”

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II. The Group of Stone Sculptures of Imperial Tombs

Prior to the Sui and Tang Dynasties, Buddhist statues, including cave temples, dominated stone sculpture art. After the Tang Dynasty began, with the unprecedented growth of politics, economics, and culture, Chinese art blossomed once again. Stone sculpture also reached a new peak in development, and tomb stone sculpture, particularly the group of stone sculptures of imperial tombs, started to flourish. In the early years of the Tang Dynasty, as the country was still recovering from the wounds of war, the stone carvings of Emperor Gaozu Li Yuan’s tomb were only initially established. Each of the tomb’s four gates had a pair of stone tigers, and south of the inner city’s south gate were a pair of stone rhinoceroses and a pair of obelisks. Their thick, primitive style was less sophisticated than the more refined craftsmanship of their successors.

Emperor Taizong’s Zhaoling Tomb utilized the mountain as the tomb mound. The stone sculpture group in front of the tomb was not established as a customary practice, but these works were grand and powerful, with skilled craftsmanship. They stretched out in front of the towering tomb, their grand scale effectively highlighting the Emperor’s achievements and his solemn, sacred, and imposing presence. Especially notable were the bas-relief stone carvings in front of Zhaoling Tomb, known as “the Six Steeds of Zhaoling,” which were rare masterpieces of realism.

From the late Tang Dynasty, the Five Dynasties period, the Song Dynasty, and into the tombs of surrounding regional powers, all adopted the style of the Qianling Tomb stone carvings. The Qianling, Shunling, and Qiaoling tombs best reflect the achievements of Tang Dynasty tomb stone sculpture art. Shunling was the tomb of Empress Wu Zetian’s mother, Yang, and Qiaoling was the tomb of Emperor Xuanzong’s father, Li Dan. The Qianling Tomb, however, was the joint tomb of Empress Wu Zetian and her husband, Emperor Gaozong Li Zhi. Beginning with the Qianling Tomb, a custom developed of placing stone carvings in front of tombs. The carvings can be divided into six categories: 1) stone lions, 2) stone men and stone horses with grooms, 3) winged beasts and six horses at the north gate, 4) images of foreign kings, 5) obelisks, 6) stone tablets and the Uninscribed Tablet, and the “Shushengji” tablet. However, this system of stone carvings in front of tombs was not strictly adhered to later, especially as the political system declined and economic and cultural prosperity waned. Subsequent imperial tombs could not match the grandeur of the Qianling Tomb’s stone carvings. The An Lushan Rebellion triggered various social conflicts that had been brewing for years, and people again faced the chaos of rebuilding the world, so imperial tomb stone carvings after the mid-Tang Dynasty could not be compared to those of the prosperous Tang era. The simplicity of their shapes and the weakness of their lines meant that the stone sculptures lost their former grandeur. The imperial tombs of the late Tang Dynasty only retained the scale of the stone carvings in front of the tombs, but their small size and the loss of their luxurious style hinted at the impending downfall of the Li Tang Dynasty.

The decorative patterns and floral motifs carved into the stone walls of tombs, epitaphs, and steles during the Sui and Tang Dynasties are an endless source of inspiration for later artists. Stone bas-reliefs essentially used a knife instead of a brush to create engravings on the surface of the stone. In fact, it elevated the white outline form of Chinese painting into stone carving art. Therefore, it combined the elegance and fluidity of brushstrokes with the powerful and meticulous precision of stone carving techniques. There are many fine examples of Sui and Tang Dynasty stone bas-reliefs and line carvings, and they are generally used to decorate buildings, cave temples, tombs, and their funerary objects. The creation of ancient Chinese stone carvings, from the Han Dynasty to the Sui and Tang Dynasties, reached its peak, with content increasingly tending towards realism. Line-carved figure paintings were varied and filled with the charm of everyday life. They carried on the legacy of the Han Dynasty and the Northern and Southern Dynasties, creatively expanding the content of their representations, and had a profound influence on later Buddhist, Daoist, and various types of realistic stone line carvings.

In addition to the larger stone carvings of Sui and Tang Dynasty tombs, there were also smaller, round sculpted pieces, which equally reflect the great achievements of stone carving art at that time. Two sculpted figures from the Tang Dynasty tomb of Yang Sixu are outstanding examples. Yang Sixu’s tomb was robbed in earlier years, and most of its treasures were lost, but the remaining stone sculptures are still valuable. For example, his stone coffin was carved from bluish-gray rock in the form of a palace. Inside and out, the stone coffin is decorated with fine motifs of male attendants, lions, birds and beasts, scrolling plants, and treasure-shaped flowers, demonstrating a perfect blend of stone carving and line-carved engravings.

1. The Six Steeds of Zhaoling Tomb

Zhaoling Tomb is the tomb of Emperor Taizong Li Shimin, located in Liquan County, Shaanxi Province. The Six Steeds of Zhaoling are six bas-relief stone carvings of steeds carved from green stone on the east and west sides of the altar north of the tomb. Each carving is about 2 meters wide and 1.7 meters high. “The Six Steeds of Zhaoling” are beautifully sculpted, with flowing lines and delicate, rounded craftsmanship. They are precious examples of ancient stone carving art.

Construction of Zhaoling Tomb began in the 10th year of the Zhenguan era (636) when Empress Wende, Changsun, was first buried there, and continued until the 29th year of the Kaiyuan era (743), spanning 107 years. Numerous cultural relics have been unearthed above and below ground. It serves as a tangible testament to the transition from the early Tang to the prosperous Tang, and is a valuable repository for understanding and researching Tang Dynasty and Chinese feudal society’s politics, economics, and culture. Zhaoling Tomb is also the joint tomb of Emperor Taizong Li Shimin and Empress Wende. The two sides of the sacrificial hall beside the tomb have colonnades, and the “Six Steeds of Zhaoling” stone carvings are positioned among them.

This group of bas-reliefs was created by Emperor Taizong after Empress Changsun was buried in the 10th year of the Zhenguan era, to commemorate his accomplishments during his military career and to honor his beloved steeds. The six steeds are: “Saluzizi, Telebiaopiao, Quanbipao, BaiTiwu, Qingzhui, Shifachi.” It is said that the images of the steeds were painted by the famous Tang Dynasty painter Yan Liben, and Emperor Taizong wrote personal inscriptions about each steed, four lines per steed, written in the eight-stroke style by the master calligrapher Ouyang Xun.

The first steed on the east side is called “Telebiaopiao,” with a yellow body, white muzzle, and a slightly black mane. The horse’s coat is a yellow with white highlights, which is why it is called “biaopiao.” “Tele” is a title in the Turkic language, possibly given by a Turkic official. Emperor Taizong rode this horse when he defeated Song Jingang. Historical records show that in the early Tang Dynasty, when the country was not yet unified, Song Jingang occupied Tiaozhou (now in Shanxi Province) and his forces were very strong. In 619, Emperor Taizong rode this horse to battle Song Jingang. “Telebiaopiao” carried Emperor Taizong through the enemy lines, fought for a day and night, and won eight hard battles, earning great renown. Emperor Taizong’s inscription for this horse reads: “Respond to the strategy, soar through the air, receive the sound halfway. Break through the heavenly pass, overcome the enemy, ride on the perilous, save the difficult.”

The second steed on the east side is called “Qingzhui,” a gray horse with white markings. Emperor Taizong rode this horse when he defeated Dou Jiande. Dou Jiande was originally a general under the Sui army, and was said to be Emperor Taizong’s maternal uncle. He took advantage of the chaos and declared himself King of Xia. At that time, the Tang army held the Hulao Pass and occupied a favorable position. Emperor Taizong seized the opportunity, when the enemy forces had been stationed for a long time and were tired and hungry, to order a full counterattack. He personally led a group of elite cavalry, broke through the enemy lines, and captured Dou Jiande in one swift move. In the stone carving, Qingzhui is galloping, with five arrows lodged in its body. They were all hit while it was charging, but most are in the back of the horse, indicating the incredible speed at which it was running. Emperor Taizong’s inscription for this steed reads: “Light and swift as lightning, spirit transcends the mechanism of heaven, spur this flying braid, and secure my military uniform.” The first three lines describe the horse’s swiftness and agility, while the last line states the significance of this battle.

The third steed on the east side is called “Shifachi.” “Shifa” is a transliteration of the Persian word for “horse.” This was a red horse from Persia, pure scarlet in color. Emperor Taizong rode this horse when he fought Wang Shichong and Dou Jiande at Luoyang and Hulao Pass. In the stone carving, the steed gallops through the air, with five arrows lodged in its body, all in its hindquarters. One arrow came from behind, showing that it was injured during a charge. Emperor Taizong’s inscription for this steed reads: “The river is not yet calm, the ax and the mace exert their might, crimson sweat stains the hooves, the blue banner returns in triumph.” During this major battle, Emperor Taizong went through trials and tribulations, losing three steeds, but ultimately accomplishing the task of unifying the country. The phrase “blue banner returns in triumph” reveals his excitement.

The first steed on the west side is called “Saluzizi,” a purple horse with white markings, with an arrow in its chest. Emperor Taizong rode this horse when he defeated Wang Shichong and secured the Eastern Capital. The man leading the steed, pulling out the arrow, is Qiu Xinggong. Of all the six steeds, this is the only one that features a human figure, along with their story. According to the “New Book of Tang,” biography of Qiu Xinggong, in 621, the Tang army and Wang Shichong’s army fought a decisive battle at Luoyang. Emperor Taizong’s loyal general, Qiu Xinggong, was brave and skilled in archery. In the battle of Mangshan, when Emperor Taizong was on Saluzizi, he personally tested the enemy’s strength and charged out of the battle lines with dozens of cavalrymen, clashing with the enemy. Most of the cavalrymen were scattered, only Qiu Xinggong remained by his side. The young and ambitious Emperor Taizong was so caught up in the battle, that he lost contact with his rear forces and was surrounded by the enemy. Suddenly, Wang Shichong arrived and shot an arrow at Saluzizi’s chest. At that critical moment, Qiu Xinggong arrived to the rescue. He turned around and shot four arrows, all hitting their mark, and the enemy retreated. Qiu Xinggong immediately jumped off his horse, pulled the arrow out of Saluzizi, gave his horse to Emperor Taizong, and then charged into the enemy lines on foot, killing several people, and breaking through to return to his own forces. Because of this, Emperor Taizong especially sculpted his heroic image on Zhaoling Tomb. Qiu Xinggong has a mustache, a handsome and imposing face, is wearing battle armor, a helmet on his head, a sword and a quiver on his waist, and is in the act of bending over to pull an arrow out of the horse. This perfectly captures the scene of that time. Emperor Taizong’s inscription for this steed reads: “Purple swallow, leaps beyond, bones and spirit noble, inspires awe in three rivers, power overpowers eight formations.”

The second steed on the west side is called “Quanmaopao,” a horse with a black muzzle and a yellow coat with swirls of fur. It has six arrows in the front and three arrows in the back, and was ridden by Emperor Taizong when he defeated Liu Heida. Liu Heida was originally a subordinate of Li Mi, the leader of the Wagang army, during the end of the Sui Dynasty. After Dou Jiande was defeated, Liu Heida occupied the old counties of the Xia state, colluded with the Turks, and declared himself King of Handong. He was eventually defeated by Emperor Taizong.

In 622, Emperor Taizong led the Tang army to battle Liu Heida near present-day Quzhou, Hebei Province. When the main force of Liu’s army crossed the river, the Tang army broke the dam upstream, ambushed the enemy, and won a decisive victory. The stone carving of Quanmaopao shows nine arrows in the horse’s body, reflecting the intensity of the battle. Emperor Taizong’s inscription for this steed reads: “Lunar spirit guides the reins, heavenly steed traverses horizontally. Lone arrows are finally collected, the miasma is cleared.” After this battle, the Tang Dynasty’s mission to unify China was complete.

The third steed on the west side is called “BaiTiwu,” a pure black horse with four white hooves. Emperor Taizong rode this horse when he defeated Xue Rengao. Xue Rengao was the son of Xue Ju, who occupied present-day Lanzhou and declared himself Emperor Qin in the early Tang Dynasty. Xue Ju led his troops to attack Tang, attempting to capture Chang’an, but he died before achieving his goal. His son continued to garrison troops in eastern Gansu, threatening the Tang Dynasty, until he was defeated by Emperor Taizong and surrendered. In 618, the Tang army had just taken control of Guanzhong, and had not yet stabilized their position. Xue Ju and Xue Rengao, who controlled Lanzhou and Tianshui, launched a full-scale attack on the Tang army, vying for control of Guanzhong. After a standoff for two months, Emperor Taizong saw an opportunity and used a small force to distract the enemy while he led his main force to attack their rear, causing the Xue army to fall into disarray and retreat. Emperor Taizong seized the opportunity to pursue them, urging BaiTiwu to lead the charge, relentlessly chasing them for 200 li in one day and night, forcing Xue Rengao to surrender. Emperor Taizong’s inscription for this steed reads: “Leans on a long sword in the sky, chases the wind with swift hooves, raises the reins to pacify the Long (area), turns the saddle to secure Shu (area).”

Of the six steeds, three are in a running position, and three are standing. Some have arrow wounds carved on their bodies. In front of one of the horses, a general is sculpted, pulling an arrow out of the horse and tending to its wound. All six steeds have three-strand manes and are tied with a rope. This is a characteristic of Tang Dynasty warhorses. The horse’s decorations and equipment, such as saddles, stirrups, saddles, reins, etc., accurately reflect the decorations of Tang Dynasty warhorses.

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Zhaoling Six Steeds: Top: Telebiaopiao, Qingzhui, Shifachi Bottom: Saluzizi, Quanmaopao, BaiTiwu

The two stones representing “Saluzizi” and “Quanmaopao” were stolen in 1914 by Lu Qinzai, a Chinese antique dealer at the time, and sold abroad for $125,000. They are now in the University of Pennsylvania Museum in Philadelphia, USA. The remaining four stones are currently housed in the Xi’an Beilin Museum in Shaanxi Province. In 2010, Chinese experts were invited to the United States to participate in the restoration of “Quanmaopao” and “Saluzizi,” and they have reached a level that allows them to be exhibited globally.

2. The Stone Sculptures of Qianling Tomb

Qianling Tomb is the joint tomb of Emperor Gaozong Li Zhi (628-683) and Empress Wu Zetian (624-705), the third generation emperor of the Tang Dynasty. It is located on a stone mountain, 50 kilometers west of Xi’an City. The 124 exquisitely sculpted large stone sculptures within the tomb enclosure, along the Simatai Path, on both sides of the central axis, serve as a true depiction of the thriving society of the prosperous Tang Dynasty, allowing people to experience the spirit of the era it reflects.

The tomb enclosure faces south and is divided into an inner enclosure and an outer enclosure. The stone sculptures include a pair of stone lions at each of the four gates of the inner enclosure, and three groups of horses and grooms outside the north gate. The remaining sculptures are arranged on both sides of the Simatai Path, extending south to north, in the following order: a pair of obelisks, a pair of winged horses, a pair of ostriches, five pairs of stone horses and grooms, ten pairs of stone Wengzhong figures, the Uninscribed Tablet, the “Shushengji” tablet, and 61 images of foreign kings. This is the largest collection of existing stone carvings in Tang Dynasty tombs. Its combination and design became a customary practice for stone carvings in imperial tombs of subsequent dynasties. All utilize a thick, dignified form, with square outlines, and use a combination of round sculpture, bas-relief, and line carving to emphasize their commemorative significance.

The two obelisks were each carved from a single piece of giant rock, standing 8 meters high and 1.12 meters in diameter. They have a double-layered square base, covered with a lotus bud column. The octagonal column body, the soaring phoenix lotus top, and the round stone form five components. Each side of the column body uses the “reducing bottom” technique in stone carving, and is decorated with pomegranate flowers, symbolizing good fortune. The winged horses retain the characteristics of the Southern Dynasties stone carvings of apotropaic creatures. The side profile of the crouching lions forms a triangle, emphasizing their majestic power. The stone figures holding swords are wearing caps, long robes with wide sleeves, and stand upright, with similar forms, but different facial features. They are supposed to be the straight-standing generals who guarded the palace. The 61 images of foreign kings depict envoys from 61 countries and regions who attended Emperor Gaozong’s funeral. They are also valuable historical records that illustrate the friendly relations between China and other countries during the Tang Dynasty. Emperor Qin Shi Huang had placed Wengzhong figures in front of the Simatai Path of the Xianyang Palace. Later emperors also followed this example, using the figures to serve the tomb enclosure. The Simatai Path of Qianling Tomb has ten pairs of stone Wengzhong figures arranged symmetrically from south to north. North of the Wengzhong figures are two stone tablets. The one on the west is Emperor Gaozong’s golden-lettered “Shushengji” tablet, also known as the Seven-Section Tablet. It is a commemorative tablet erected by Empress Wu Zetian to sing the praises of Emperor Gaozong. The tablet is 6.30 meters high, 1.86 meters wide, and contains about 5,600 characters. Empress Wu Zetian wrote the text, and Emperor Zhongzong Li Xian wrote the inscription. The strokes were originally carved and filled with gold powder. Some of the gold lettering still remains today. The tablet on the east is Empress Wu Zetian’s “Uninscribed Tablet.” It is 7.53 meters high, 2.1 meters wide, 1.49 meters thick, and weighs about 98.8 tons. The body of the tablet is carved with eight intertwined chi dragons, four on each side. The body of the tablet was carved from a single, massive rock. On each side are line carvings of “Ascending Dragon” figures, 4.12 meters high. On the front of the tablet base is a line carving of “Lion and Horse” figures, 2.14 meters long and 0.66 meters wide. The entire Uninscribed Tablet is grand and imposing, with exquisite carvings, and is a large-scale monument among Chinese historical tablets. The tablet was erected during the Tang Dynasty, but contains no characters from that period. This has left many unanswered questions, including the “great virtue theory,” the “遗言说” (遗言说), etc. The “great virtue theory” states that Empress Wu Zetian felt her accomplishments were too great to express in words, so she erected a blank tablet. The “遗言说” (遗言说) states that Empress Wu Zetian left instructions before her death, “leave it to future generations to evaluate my accomplishments and failures,” so she didn’t inscribe a single word.

The powerful force of the Qianling Tomb stone carvings is evident not only in their outward forms, grand and majestic, but also in their inner spirit, profound and expansive. This spirit naturally flows through the Qianling Tomb stone sculptures, a profound and powerful spiritual force interwoven with simple and elegant carving forms. Whether it’s the stately and opulent figures or the bold and imposing animals of the Qianling Tomb stone sculptures, one can sense a surging power within their massive volumes. And within those flowing lines, there are musical rhythms and beats.

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Qianling Tomb Uninscribed Tablet Qianling Tomb, stone sculptures on both sides of the Simatai Path

3. Sculpted Warrior Figures from Yang Sixu’s Tomb

These were unearthed in 1958 from Yang Sixu’s tomb in the southern suburbs of Xi’an City, Shaanxi Province. Yang Sixu was a trusted eunuch of Emperor Xuanzong. He followed Emperor Xuanzong, who was then Prince Linzi, and participated in the palace coup that eliminated Empress Wei of Emperor Zhongzong. After Emperor Xuanzong ascended the throne, Yang Sixu was repeatedly entrusted with military power, and was known for his cruelty and killings. He rose through the ranks through his military achievements, reaching the highest rank of first grade. His deeds are recorded in the “New Book of Tang” and the “Old Book of Tang,” in the “Biographers of Eunuchs” section.

The two figures are 40.1 centimeters high, both made of marble with gilt, most of which has peeled off. Both stand on square pedestals. They wear caps, long-sleeved round-necked robes, and black sashes tied around their waists (painted black). The fronts of their robes are pulled up and tucked into their sashes. They wear trousers and black boots. One figure holds a set of weapons in front of his chest, and has another set of weapons on both sides of his waist. The other figure also has weapons on both sides of his waist, but his right hand is holding a rod-like object in front of his chest. Because the top and bottom portions are damaged, it is unclear what it is. His left hand rests on his sword. From their clothing and accessories, it can be concluded that they were attendants of the tomb’s owner. The weapons carried by these two sculpted figures were already damaged when they were unearthed, and they were restored by the excavators. There are currently three crescent-shaped objects on the left sides of their waists, and one figure is holding one in front of his chest. The broken upper portion of the objects was restored by the excavators as sheathed curved swords. Taking into consideration the wall paintings in Tang Dynasty tombs depicting guards of honor, new research suggests that these crescent-shaped objects are bow cases, designed to hold bows. This research further indicates that Tang Dynasty bow cases are broadly categorized into two types: one type completely conceals the bow within the case, with only the bow tip slightly protruding from the opening; the other type cannot completely hold the bow, and a fairly long section of the bow shaft remains outside the opening. The bow cases carried on the figures’ waists belong to the latter type. It is difficult to determine which type of bow case the figure holding one is carrying, because too much of it is broken.

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Sculpted Warrior Figures from Yang Sixu’s Tomb, with Gilded Decorations

III. Stone Sculptures in Daily Life during the Sui and Tang Dynasties

The Sui and Tang dynasties witnessed a surge in the use of stone sculptures for daily life, extending beyond functional objects like stone lamps, stoves, tables, benches, and pillows, as well as artistic depictions of horses and birds. Stone sculptures were increasingly integrated into architectural components, such as stone tablets, pillars, thresholds, window lattices, doorframes, and decorative elements like reliefs and sculptures, becoming far more prevalent than in preceding dynasties. This enhanced fusion of architecture and sculptural ornamentation further propelled the development of stone sculpture during the Sui and Tang eras.

A prime example of this clever blending of utility and aesthetics in architectural art is the Anji Bridge in Zhao County, Hebei Province, constructed during the Sui Dynasty’s Daye era. Examining its components reveals the widespread use of stone sculptural elements in Sui and Tang architecture, surpassing those of earlier periods, with increasingly prominent achievements. This deeper integration of architectural design and sculptural decoration significantly advanced stone sculpture during the Sui and Tang dynasties.

Many of the exquisite stone reliefs and line engravings from the Sui and Tang periods were employed in architectural decoration. The existing Tang Dynasty stone relief decoration on the Big Wild Goose Pagoda, depicting “Heavenly Beings Performing Music and Dance,” stands as a masterpiece of architectural stone sculpture from that era.

The flourishing of sculpture during this period is reflected in the greater number of accounts about artists compared to previous dynasties. For instance, the stone rhinoceros at the Tang Gaozu’s Xianling Mausoleum bears an inscription: “Recorded by the stone mason Xiao Tang Er on the tenth day of the ninth month of the tenth year of Wude.” This echoes the tradition of “inscribing the worker’s name on the object” from the Warring States period, evoking a sense of witnessing a golden age. Though stone carving artists were still considered “lowly workers” by the upper classes, the mentions of sculptors like Yang Hui-zhi, Han Bo-tong, and Zhang Ai-er demonstrate the significant impact of sculpture on social life.

1. The Stone Sculptures of the Anji Bridge in Zhao County

Also known as the “Big Stone Bridge” and the “Zhaozhou Bridge,” the Anji Bridge was given its name by Emperor Zhezong of the Song Dynasty, signifying its purpose of “ensuring safe passage for the people.” Located on the Xiao River in Zhao County, Hebei Province, the bridge was constructed during the early years of Emperor Yangdi’s reign in the Sui Dynasty (605), designed and built by the renowned craftsman Li Chun. With a history of over 1,400 years, it is the oldest, largest in span, and best-preserved single-arch stone arch bridge in the world. It is listed alongside Zhao County’s other famous circular arch bridge, Yongtong Bridge (Small Stone Bridge), and the Luting Bridge in Sichuan, as a national key cultural relic protection unit, making them China’s three most significant protected ancient bridges. The Zhaozhou Bridge is praised as the “Number One Bridge Under Heaven” for its unique architectural structure, scientifically sound design, and magnificent grandeur. It spans 50.82 meters, with a span of 37.02 meters, a height of 7.23 meters, and a width of 9.6 meters at the ends, narrowing slightly to 9 meters in the middle. It is the world’s largest span and earliest single-arch, open-shouldered stone arch bridge. The middle section is used for cart traffic, while the sides are for pedestrians. This long bridge is entirely made of stone, without supporting piers, featuring a single arched bridge deck spanning over 37 meters of river. The bridge deck also has two arched smaller bridges on either side. Usually, water flows through the main bridge arch, but during floods, water can also pass through the four smaller arches. This design was a pioneering achievement in bridge construction, minimizing the impact of water flow on the bridge’s structure, thus preventing its destruction by floods, and reducing the weight of the bridge. The presence of two smaller arches on either side of the bridge deck, creating open shoulders, marks an innovation in global bridge history (bridges without these smaller arches are called “full-shouldered” or “solid-shouldered”). The Zhaozhou Bridge is the oldest existing circular arch bridge in the world. It wasn’t until 1340 that Europe built a similar circular arch bridge with a span of 29.9 meters and a flatness ratio of 0.37, the “Old Bridge” (Ponte Vecchio) in Florence. Therefore, the Zhaozhou Bridge has had a profound impact on bridge construction worldwide, with its pioneering “open-shouldered arch” design holding exceptional scientific value.

The Zhaozhou Bridge not only boasts unique construction techniques, making it a masterpiece of Chinese bridge building history, but also possesses exceptional aesthetic appeal. The decorative components of the bridge are remarkably intricate. On top, a mythical water-absorbing beast symbolizes the bridge’s protection from water damage and its enduring existence. The balustrades and railings are adorned with exquisite stone carvings of various figures, including dragons, animal masks, floral designs, and bamboo segments, with the dragons being particularly exquisite. Two intertwined dragons spew beautiful water jets from their mouths; some carvings depict two flying dragons with their front paws touching each other, looking back at each other. Others feature two dragons playing with a pearl. All the dragons appear to be in motion. The bridge’s intricate ornamental carvings, executed with powerful strokes, showcase a bold and innovative artistic style, reflecting the robust, rigorous, and elegant stone sculpture of the Sui Dynasty. The bridge is a testament to the artistry of the era, considered a true gem of exquisite craftsmanship. In 1991, it was recognized by the American Society of Civil Engineers as the 12th “International Historic Civil Engineering Landmark” in the world and was honored with a commemorative bronze plaque. This places it on par with world-renowned landmarks such as the Egyptian Pyramids, the Panama Canal, and the Eiffel Tower in France.

2. The Stone Relief of Dancing Heavenly Beings on the Big Wild Goose Pagoda in Xi’an

The Ci’en Temple, located in the modern-day Yanta Village, southeast of the city of Xi’an, is home to the Big Wild Goose Pagoda, which has become a distinctive landmark of the ancient city. Emperor Li Zhi (later known as Emperor Gaozong of the Tang Dynasty), mourning the loss of his mother, Empress Consort Changsun, ordered the construction of a temple and pagoda on the former site of the Sui Dynasty Wuleo Temple in memory of his mother. This became the Daci’en Temple, the largest temple in Tang Chang’an, occupying the eastern half of the entire Jinchangfang district, covering approximately 270,000 square meters. “Multiple layers of buildings and palaces, cloud chambers and sky-high rooms, with over ten courtyards, totaling 1,897 rooms,” it was incredibly grand and magnificent. At the time, the temple’s area was seven or eight times larger than the existing one. Shortly after its completion, Li Zhi invited Master Xuanzang, who had returned from “seeking scriptures in the West,” to manage the temple’s affairs.

The Big Wild Goose Pagoda was initially built by Xuanzang to store Buddhist scriptures and images brought back from India. It was modeled after Indian structures but, as it was built with a brick exterior and earth core, it collapsed after about fifty years. In 701, during the first year of Wu Zetian’s reign in Chang’an, Wu Zetian and the royal nobles funded the rebuilding of the pagoda, using only blue bricks to construct a seven-story tower. Though it has undergone numerous repairs over the years, its form remains largely unchanged. Today, it stands as a distinctive landmark of the ancient city of Xi’an.

The existing Big Wild Goose Pagoda sits on a platform measuring approximately 45 meters by 45 meters, with a height of about 4 meters. The tower itself is seven stories high, reaching 60 meters. The base of each side measures 25 meters, constructed entirely of brick, with meticulously aligned bricks, forming a square, truncated pyramid. Each layer has flat brick pillars and a frieze on the wall, with protruding brick pillars in the center, resembling openings. Each layer has an arched doorway on each of its four sides, offering panoramic views. On the ground level, there are stone doors on all four sides. Each door lintel and frame is adorned with exquisite line engravings of Buddha images. The lintel of the west door stands out for its vivid depiction of the “Amitabha Buddha Preaching” scene. The wide, lavish hall is engraved, showcasing the Buddha seated in the center. Facial features and clothing folds are meticulously detailed, attributed to the hand of the renowned Tang Dynasty painter Yan Liben. The Buddha hall is precisely drawn in the engraving, with every detail, such as the roof ridge, beast heads, eaves, windbells, brackets, pillar bases, facing bricks, and stone steps, clearly visible. It resembles a three-dimensional engineering drawing, capturing the distinctive features of Tang Dynasty architecture, holding immense research value in the history of Chinese architecture. Inside brick niches on both sides of the south stone door on the ground level are two stone stelae, inscribed by the renowned early Tang calligrapher Chu Suiliang: one is the “Grand Tang Three Treasures Sacred Teaching Preface,” written by Emperor Taizong in the twenty-second year of his reign (648) as a preface to the Buddhist scriptures translated by Xuanzang; the other is the “Grand Tang Three Treasures Sacred Teaching Preface Record,” written by Emperor Gaozong. The stelae’s inscription frame and pedestal are carved with intricately sculpted coiled dragons and dancing heavenly beings, while the sides feature delicate scrolling floral patterns. These relics provide invaluable material for studying the calligraphy, painting, sculpture, and architecture of the Tang Dynasty.

Among the stone reliefs on the Big Wild Goose Pagoda, the “Dancing Heavenly Beings” are most famous. The dancers’ postures are free and joyful, their flowing ribbons adding dynamism to the scene. The seated musicians, each with their own graceful charm, create a contrasting visual effect. The pipa and zither are played on the left, while the exaggerated movements of the ribbons create a dynamic balance within the overall image. This artistry shares a commonality with the most beautiful flying celestial beings in Buddhist art.

3. The Tang Dynasty Stone Lamp in Qian County, Shaanxi

Tang Dynasty Buddhist temples generally featured stone lamps placed directly in front of their halls, with perpetually burning torches to symbolize the boundless wisdom and power of Buddha. The stone lamps in Tang Dynasty Chang’an, the capital, consisted of three parts: the lamp chamber, the coiled dragon stone pillar, and the base. This particular lamp originally stood in the Shi Niu Temple in Xihu Village, Qian County, Shaanxi Province. In 1959, it was relocated to the Stele Forest Museum. Originally, it stood nine layers high, but currently, only seven remain, reaching a total height of 1.8 meters. The roof ridge is gracefully curved, the lamp chamber is intricate, and the stone pillar is adorned with four intricately carved coiled dragons, exuding an otherworldly and magnificent aura. It is considered the most well-preserved and exquisite Tang Dynasty stone lamp in the country.

2. Terracotta Sculptures

As mentioned earlier, the widespread use of porcelain during the Northern and Southern Dynasties led to a significant decrease in the production of earthenware for daily use, as porcelain took its place. During the Sui and Tang dynasties, while earthenware items were largely replaced by porcelain, new varieties emerged. For example, the Sui Dynasty saw the rise of white earthenware with a blue-white glaze. Figurines of men and women playing music and camel and horse sculptures became remarkably lifelike.

The Tang Dynasty witnessed the proliferation of painted terracotta figurines. These were mainly produced using molds, then carefully finished and fired in kilns. The style and design of painted terracotta figurines varied slightly over time. Taking female figurines as an example, the early Tang period saw figurines similar to those of the Sui Dynasty, with full faces and average builds. During the prosperous Tang era, female figurines sported delicate eyebrows, bright eyes, and voluptuous figures. By the late Tang Dynasty, female figurines resembled those of the early Tang. Additionally, painted figurines depicting women dressed as men, riding horses, wearing Xiongnu clothing, with veils and face masks, commonly appeared in tombs of the mid to late Tang Dynasty. Tang Dynasty tombs in Hebei and Henan provinces have yielded several named painted terracotta figurines. On the back or other parts of these figurines, inscriptions indicate their names, such as “Strong Man,” “Inkstone Holder,” or “Obeying Orders.” These figurines are generally characterized by full faces and elongated figures, a feature almost absent in pre-Tang terracotta figures.

“Joking figurines” (dramatic figurines) were a new addition to Tang terracotta sculptures. These figurines have been found in various locations, including the Central Plains and the northwest border. While figurines depicting officials were relatively rare, a type of earthenware, wood, and silk-clad figurines was discovered in Tang Dynasty tombs in Xinjiang’s Turfan region, a dry climate area. The heads of these figurines were made of clay, while the lower bodies were wooden, and they were draped in silk-like clothing. Facial expressions were lifelike and vivid. Another type of figurine, which was not fired but hand-molded, has only been found in locations like Turfan. Additionally, playful terracotta figurines, such as “Playing General,” “Dancing Girl,” “Lion Dance,” and other folk-inspired acrobatic acts performed by two figures, were also found in Xinjiang’s Turfan region.

A significant breakthrough in Tang Dynasty terracotta sculpture was the production of a new type of ceramic ware: Tang Sancai. This lead-glazed earthenware, made using white clay, underwent a first firing (at 1100°C) before being glazed and fired again (at 800°C). It was mainly used as burial goods. It originated in the early Tang Dynasty, flourished during the prosperous Tang period, and was primarily characterized by yellow, green, and white glazes, thus the name Tang Sancai (three colors).

Whether it be the painted terracotta figurines of the Sui and Tang dynasties or the Tang Sancai creations, they were mainly used as burial items, including figurines, jars, pots, cups, plates, oxen, horses, camels, and other items used in burial rituals. Throughout Chinese history, great emphasis was placed on the importance of life and death, with a belief in the continuation of the soul after death. It was believed that the deceased would resume their life in another world. Therefore, during the prosperous Tang era, aristocratic individuals not only led extravagant lives but also envisioned continuing to enjoy their luxurious lifestyle after death. They had their earthly possessions—soldiers, guards, entertainers, musicians, dancers, camels, horses, oxen, birds, beasts, and everyday items like bottles, bowls, pots, jars—made into burial goods for their tombs, making the practice of lavish burials prevalent throughout society. The production of these burial goods was widespread among nobles, officials, and ordinary people alike. While this practice was curtailed by the Tang government, which imposed restrictions and regulations on the quantity and size of burial items based on an individual’s official rank, the lavish burial trend persisted and intensified. The renowned Sancai pottery emerged as a response to this burial custom.

Although historical records from the Tang Dynasty do not explicitly mention Sancai as burial goods, unearthed items from that period in Xi’an and Luoyang, especially those clearly identified as burial goods in tombs of noblemen and officials based on tomb inscriptions, are predominantly Sancai. Furthermore, the geographical distribution of Tang Sancai finds is largely limited to the Tang Dynasty capitals of Chang’an and Luoyang, with very few discoveries in other areas. In 1960, archaeologists unearthed over 170 Sancai pieces from the tomb of Princess Yongtai of the Tang Dynasty, including various human and animal figurines (68 pieces), various pottery items for daily use (101 pieces), and exceptionally rare gold-painted terracotta figurines. This is the largest number of burial items ever found in a Tang tomb. As the tomb belonged to royalty, all aspects, including its size, wall paintings, and types of burial goods, were of the highest standard, with the exception of the emperor. The abundance of Sancai artifacts in this tomb further emphasizes their role as burial items that replaced precious metals and other artistic treasures in Tang Dynasty tombs. This is also supported by the “Tang Huiyao” (Collection of Tang Records), which states: “Burial goods are made using glazed tiles and cannot be made using wood or gold, silver, copper, or tin.”

The production and popularity of “Tang Sancai” can be divided into three phases:

• The period of Emperor Gaozong (650-683): This marked a preparatory phase for Sancai figurines or the phase of burial vessels. During this period, mature Sancai vessels emerged in Tang Dynasty tombs, with their crafting and design suited for burial purposes. However, Sancai figurines were not yet present, only terracotta figurines with painted glazes. During this time, the body of Sancai pottery was fired at higher temperatures, closer to the firing temperature of porcelain. The glaze color was primarily brown and reddish-brown, sometimes with white or green, and by the later years of Emperor Zhongzong’s reign, bright yellow, white, and green Sancai glazes were already present, using the dip glaze method. The glaze was thick and uneven.
• The period of Wu Zetian, Emperor Zhongzong, and Emperor Xuanzong’s reign during the Kaiyuan era (684-741): This marked the peak of Sancai figurines, or the phase of burial figurines and vessels. This period saw the application of Sancai techniques to the surface decoration of terracotta figurines, with various burial items, primarily Sancai figurines, becoming the mainstay of Sancai production. This phase witnessed significant advancements in Sancai craftsmanship. The firing temperature of the body was lower than in the previous period, making it more suitable for low-temperature glazes. This ensured a consistent firing temperature and coefficient of expansion for both body and glaze, resulting in a stronger bond. In addition to printing and scratching designs, the decoration involved techniques like applique, sculpting, and molding. A wide range of decorative patterns were employed, prominently featuring human figures, animals, birds, and floral branches. During this period, Sancai figurines were large in size, Sancai vessels were aesthetically pleasing, and this marked the golden age of Tang Sancai.
• The period of Emperor Xuanzong’s Tianbao era and the late Tang Dynasty (742-907): This marked a decline in Sancai figurines, or the phase of daily use vessels. During this time, dated Tang tombs rarely contained Sancai artifacts, especially large Sancai figurines. While it is not impossible that ordinary people continued to use smaller Sancai figurines for burial purposes, various everyday utensils and decorative items became the primary focus of Sancai production. From the later years of the Kaiyuan era, painted terracotta figurines replaced Sancai figurines as burial objects. Dated tombs from the Tianbao era rarely yielded everyday utensils. Sancai artifacts unearthed from mid to late Tang Dynasty sites in Yangzhou were primarily everyday utensils or toys, likely intended for trade purposes. By this time, Sancai production had declined, with Sancai figurines still being produced but at smaller sizes. The glazes were thinner, transitioning from multicolor to single color, using variations in intensity of the same color for decoration. The bond between the body and glaze weakened, resulting in glaze flaking.

Sancai artifacts, as burial goods, reflected various aspects of Tang Dynasty social life. These included architectural structures like pavilions, courtyards, and artificial hills; livestock like horses, camels, oxen, sheep, pigs, dogs, and rabbits; human figures like servants, warriors, heavenly kings, dancers, and musicians; everyday items like bottles, pots, dishes, bowls, lamps, pillows, and candlesticks; and study materials like water pourers and inkstones. Essentially, they covered a wide range of objects, leaving no stone unturned. Among these Sancai items, human and animal figurines are the most abundant, with the human figurines being the most captivating. These figurines not only capture diverse appearances, personalities, postures, and even ethnic characteristics but also depict individuals from various social ranks and positions, expressing different thoughts and emotions in specific settings. The portrayal of individuals of different genders and ages is particularly diverse, with no repetition. For instance, elegant and stately noblewomen figurines have their hair piled high, full features, and wear elaborate, wide robes and long skirts, accentuating their exceptional grace and elegance. Young women figurines are graceful, exuding the vitality of youth. Their intelligence, playfulness, and liveliness are readily apparent. Male officials are typically portrayed with Confucian caps and wide-sleeved robes, exhibiting restrained expressions, dignified self-reliance, meek devotion, and a sense of moral authority. Tang Sancai female figurines embody three distinct appearances: noble women, maidservants, and courtesans. Figurines of working women are relatively rare. There are also figurines of “Hu” people, representing ethnic minorities or foreigners within China’s borders, with deep-set eyes, prominent noses, pointed hats, long coats with turned-up collars, and tall boots. They are incredibly realistic and vivid.

Horse figurines are among the most spirited creations in Sancai pottery. Horses were vital for transportation, military operations, and hunting in ancient times, making them highly valued by emperors and noblemen. The Tang Dynasty people had a particular fondness for horses, with both official stables and ordinary citizens highly cherishing horses. To acquire superior breeds, the Tang Dynasty government specifically selected various fine horses from Central Asia, Arabia, and Persia. While some of these breeds were reserved for royal use, the majority were used for breeding and improving horse stock. The saying “After mixing with foreign breeds, horses grew stronger” refers to this practice. It is said that Emperor Xuanzong had over 340,000 fine horses in his imperial stables under the care of the Minister of Horses, Wang Mao-zhong, and Deputy Minister, Zhang Jing-shun. When he traveled to Mount Tai for a sacrificial ceremony, he had tens of thousands of horses accompanying him, “forming a line like clouds and brocades.” He also had “a hundred dancing horses, carrying cups and offering toasts to celebrate his birthday.” This grandeur is evident in the thousands of Sancai horse figurines that have been unearthed. These Sancai horses mostly have slender heads, rounded hips, and robust, well-nourished figures. They are not only accurately proportioned and clearly defined but also display harmonious balance between bone and muscle, with smooth lines, each a striking sculpture of a spirited steed. Some are depicted galloping with their legs raised, while others are standing around, some are neighing with necks outstretched, and others are bowing their heads to lick their feet. In addition to single horse sculptures, there are also figurines of hunting on horseback, playing polo on horseback, and women riding horses. Women riding horses were depicted in Tang Dynasty paintings, poetry, sculpture, and murals.

Camel figurines are also remarkably lifelike in Sancai pottery. They are depicted standing, lying down, or walking, each with a distinctive expression. Camels are known as “ships of the desert,” resilient and capable of carrying heavy loads. They were a crucial means of transport on the Silk Road, connecting the Tang Dynasty to various countries in the West. The phrase “Threads of silk weave friendship, camels carry messages across thousands of miles,” vividly portrays the image of camels traversing the bustling Silk Road.

The production of “Tang Sancai” inherited and developed traditional shaping techniques. Using realism and romanticism, it uniquely transformed the monotonous, rough, and stiff image of pottery, significantly advancing China’s ceramic production. The malleability of the clay used for Tang Sancai made it possible to create a diverse range of shapes. The main techniques used were joining, wheel throwing, and molding. For example, square or rectangular objects, such as Tang Sancai pottery pillows, were generally created by joining clay pieces. Round or turned objects, such as shallow dishes, bowls, saucers, and cups, were made using wheel throwing. This technique emerged during the late Dawenkou culture of the primitive society, widely employed in the late Liangzhu and Longshan cultures. It involves placing clay on a spinning wheel and using the centrifugal force to shape the clay by hand-pulling. Wheel-thrown pottery is characterized by regular shapes, uniform thickness, and parallel wheel marks on the surface and inside. Other Tang Sancai items, including horses, camels, heavenly kings, strongmen, tomb guardians, and human figures, were mostly created using molding. Molding involves using molds to shape the clay. First, clay is applied or formed into a sheet and placed in the mold, pressed with force, and then sculpted. Molding can be done with single molds or multiple molds. A single mold is used for the entire object, while multiple molds are used for sections of the object, such as the head or upper body and lower body of a human figure, which are cast separately, fired individually, and then joined together.

The brilliant culture created by the Tang people not only had a profound impact on neighboring countries through its grand scale but also served as a shining example for future generations with its broad-minded acceptance of foreign cultures. The bold, dazzling, and free-flowing glazes of Tang Sancai, its dignified and elegant, robust and full forms, and the strong foreign influence and luxurious artistic style all speak to the Tang people’s willingness to embrace foreign cultures and their ability to naturally integrate them into their own traditional Chinese spirit. Take, for instance, the double dragon-handled pot and the phoenix-headed pot, both common Sancai forms. They clearly exhibit the stylistic features of Persian Sassanid pottery. However, the phoenix head and dragon handles retain traditional Chinese characteristics. This clever blend of foreign cultural forms and traditional ethnic art demonstrates that while Tang Sancai readily absorbed foreign influences, it also skillfully utilized them.

Although primarily used as burial goods, Tang Sancai, as a remarkable art form, was admired by people worldwide during the Tang Dynasty and became a significant export commodity. As far as we know, Tang Sancai artifacts have been found in countries spanning Europe, Asia, and Africa. The Sancai items transported along the Silk Road to Central Asia and West Asia are particularly impressive. Fragments of Tang Sancai have been unearthed in countries like Egypt’s Fustat, ancient Persia’s Samarra, and ancient cultural sites in Japan, Korea, and Indonesia. World museums also hold a substantial number of well-preserved Tang Sancai pieces. Tang Sancai has influenced the world, leading to the imitation of Sancai pottery in many countries. For example, during the Silla period in Korea, which was contemporaneous with the Tang Dynasty, exquisite “Silla Sancai” was created in imitation of Tang Sancai. Japan produced “Nara Sancai,” and Egypt later produced the famous “Egyptian Sancai” in history. These facts demonstrate the positive role played by Tang Sancai in the economic and cultural exchanges between the Chinese people and people worldwide.

Regarding the making of “Tang Sancai,” in 1976, the Henan Provincial Museum and the Gongxian Cultural Management Office unearthed a group of kilns in Dahuangye, Xiaohuangye, and Longwangmiao in Gongxian County, Henan Province, where Tang Sancai was produced. The unearthed specimens included yellow, green, and white double-layered bowls, white-glazed blue-painted bowls, and blue-glazed bottles, as well as molds for attaching flowers. The variety of items was quite rich. These Tang Sancai kilns in Gongxian County also produced white and black glazed porcelain. Based on the finds, Tang Sancai was not the earliest product of these kilns. In addition to Gongxian, Tang Sancai artifacts have been found in Huangbao kilns in Shaanxi, Luoshan Duandian kilns in Henan, Yuxian Liujiamen kilns, Yangjiagou kilns, and Quhe kilns in Dengfeng. Furthermore, fragments of Tang Sancai have also been found in the Xing kilns in Neiqiu, Hebei Province, and the Ding kilns in Quyang. Additionally, workshops producing Tang Sancai have been found in Sichuan.

Additionally, applique or printed floral designs often appear as decorations on Sancai artifacts in the form of “宝相花” (baoxiang hua). This design originates from Buddhist culture. In Buddhism, “宝相” (baoxiang) refers to the dignity and solemnity of a Buddha image. The decorative form of this design is based on the lotus flower. Later, the Baoxiang flower evolved, shedding its Buddhist meaning to symbolize happiness and fulfillment.

IV. Famous Painted Terracotta and “Tang Sancai” Masterpieces of the Sui and Tang Dynasties

1. Sui Dynasty Painted Terracotta White-Glazed Figurine Holding a Jar

The Sui Dynasty was short-lived, and few tombs have been discovered, resulting in a limited number of unearthed Sui Dynasty figurines. This painted terracotta white-glazed figurine holding a jar, fully covered in white glaze with a slight blue sheen, showcasing even glaze application and a dynamic form, reflects mature craftsmanship, making it an exceptionally rare find among Sui Dynasty figurines.

The figurine stands 26.5 cm tall and depicts a typical Sui Dynasty female attendant. She has a low bun, delicate features, a slender figure, and a humble smile on her face. She clearly differs from both Wei and Jin figurines and Tang figurines, being neither as thin and rigid as Wei and Jin figurines nor as plump and graceful as Tang figurines. She wears typical Sui Dynasty clothing. Her low bun is arranged in three layers, extending outwards to the sides, resembling a flat-topped hat. She wears a tight-sleeved, round-necked, short tunic on her upper body and a long skirt that reaches the ground on her lower body. A sash is tied above her waist. A long ribbon drapes down her chest, giving her a slender and elegant appearance. This attire is considerably more revealing than Wei and Jin women’s clothing. Before the Sui Dynasty, women’s headwear often involved head coverings, similar to the head scarves and face veils worn by Islamic women today. By the Tang Dynasty, they often wore Xiongnu hats or styled their hair into various buns, with the buns transitioning from low to high.

This female figurine has her right hand bent forward and her left hand holding a small jar, as if standing beside her master, ready to serve, undoubtedly signifying her role as a maid. Sui Dynasty burial items departed from the Han Dynasty custom of sculpting estates and implements, embracing the enjoyment of life, with a greater focus on human and animal figurines. Besides maidservants, there were also dancer figurines, musician figurines, male attendants, and warrior figurines. The Tang Dynasty further developed this trend, creating a richer variety of human and animal figurines, with even greater dynamism and realism. The Sui Dynasty marked the beginning of this shift in societal trends.

Sui Dynasty terracotta figurines are relatively rare in existing collections, with female attendant figurines being even scarcer.

2. Tang Dynasty Applique-Decorated Disc-Mouth Glazed Bottle

This artifact was among the objects unearthed from the Tang Dynasty underground palace beneath the Famen Temple pagoda in Fufeng County, Shaanxi Province, in the spring of 1987. The Famen Temple pagoda’s underground palace is the only one in China to preserve the true relic of the Buddha Sakyamuni. These relics were deposited in the underground palace in January of the fifteenth year of Emperor Yizong’s reign in the Tang Dynasty (874). They were offered by the Tang Dynasty royal family and are not only numerous but also of high quality. The relics also bear inscriptions, indicating the manufacturing institution, object name, time, weight, and supervisory official, providing invaluable material for understanding and identifying these artifacts, and for researching the economic life, religious activities, and other aspects of Tang Dynasty society.

A total of 20 glazed items were unearthed from the underground palace, mainly dishes, with origins in the Eastern Roman Empire, West Asia, and China. This glazed bottle is 21 cm tall and has a belly diameter of 16 cm. Its glaze is a bean-green color with a yellowish tint. It has a slender neck, a bulging belly, a smooth silhouette, a flat base, and a disc-shaped mouth. There is a ring of raised string-shaped designs at the shoulder, slightly lower, with black circular decorations in an evenly spaced arrangement. The belly has applique pomegranates, followed by a ring of black gourd decorations. These five layers of decorative designs were added after the bottle was formed, using molten glass rods to create point-shaped and line-shaped patterns on the exterior wall. After cooling, they adhered to the bottle. This decorative technique is also known as applique. The decorations are spontaneous, appearing as if they were done effortlessly. Since glaze shares characteristics of both glass and porcelain, its surface is lustrous and translucent, and the combination of shape and decoration creates a stunningly magnificent effect.

This applique-decorated disc-mouth glazed bottle is a product of the Eastern Roman Empire from the 5th century and was likely used as a ritual vessel for ablutions during Muslim worship. The pattern combination, variations, and configuration methods are distinct from Chinese decorative techniques. The overall shape of the bottle also differs from traditional Chinese object shapes. The bottle utilizes hot-working decorative techniques inherited from the Roman Empire, like attaching threads and appliques. This demonstrates the mastery of this technique by glassmakers on the eastern coast of the Mediterranean Sea as early as the Roman Empire. Therefore, this applique-decorated disc-mouth glazed bottle is not only exceptionally valuable in itself but also stands as evidence of the Silk Road connecting Central Asia and West Asia. Its historical significance is undeniable.

3. Blue-Painted Standing Figurine of a Beauty

This artifact was unearthed from the tomb of An Yuan-shou and his wife, An Yuan-shou (607-683), a descendant of the Xiongnu people, who played a significant role in major events like the Xuanwu Gate Incident and the invasion of Turkic soldiers near the Weishui Bridge. At the age of sixteen, he joined the Qin Palace as a Right Treasury Guard, responsible for security, escorting, and saddlery duties. On June 4th of the ninth year of Wude, Prince Li Shimin of Qin staged a coup at the Xuanwu Gate, dispatching An Yuan-shou to guard the Jia Tai Gate. After the coup, he was appointed as a Right Qianniu Assistant. In August, the Turks invaded and reached the Weishui River. When Li Shimin made an alliance with the Turkic leader Jieli Khan on the Bianqiao Bridge, only An Yuan-shou was present to guard the tent. In the third year of Zhenguan, he was sent on a mission to the Western Regions and successively served as a Right Leading Army Guard, Quanfu Guo Yi Duwei, Right Brave Army General, Wei Army General, and Xiazhou Qunmu Shi (supervisor of livestock). An Yuan-shou passed away in the second year of Emperor Gaozong’s reign, Yongchun (683), and was buried in the Zhaoling Mausoleum.

This blue-painted standing figurine of a beauty is a masterpiece of Sancai figurines. The clay is white, hard, and emits a clear sound when struck, without any crackle lines, demonstrating the remarkable level of craftsmanship of that time. The color is blue, applied evenly, with no traces of glaze flow. The female figurine stands 22.5 cm tall, with her feet on a stepped base, exhibiting a voluptuous figure and graceful posture. She wears a blue robe with white floral patterns. Her cheeks are plump, her eyebrows are dark, her lips are red, and her hair is styled in a high bun, with a composed expression. The deep blue round-necked, narrow-sleeved long robe is covered with white floral clusters, with natural brown shades naturally diffusing within the clusters, enhancing the woman’s elegance and grandeur, adding a strong sense of daily life. Her dignified demeanor and elegant attire suggest that she belonged to the upper strata of society, possibly within the royal family or nobility. This burial object not only possesses a high level of artistic skill but also provides invaluable first-hand information about the dignified manner of the prosperous Tang Dynasty, the women’s hairstyles of that era, the level of textile technology, and their fashion.

4. Three-color camel carrying musical figures

This was unearthed in 1959 from a Tang Dynasty tomb in Zhongbao Village, on the outskirts of Xi’an, Shaanxi Province. The tomb belonged to Xianyu Tinghui, a close confidant of Emperor Xuanzong of Tang, Li Longji. Xianyu Tinghui participated in suppressing the “Empress Wei’s Rebellion” and rose to the rank of Cloud Banner General (Yunhui Dajun) and Pillar of the State (Shangzhu Guo).

The three-color camel carrying musical figures is 56.2 cm tall and 41 cm long. A camel with its neck arched and neighing stands on a rectangular base. The camel has its head raised and mouth open, with its tongue curled upwards, and its two ears erect, as if neighing towards the sky. The camel’s body is coated in white glaze and decorated with ochre glaze spots. The long hair on its head, neck, and upper part of its forelegs, as well as its tail, are all coated with ochre yellow glaze. The tail is naturally attached to the right side of its buttocks, forming a curved shape. Two green platforms are placed on top of the camel’s humps. A rectangular blue-edged diamond-patterned blanket is laid on the platforms, and the blanket hangs down to both sides of the camel’s abdomen. Eight musical and dancing figures are placed on the blanket, which is decorated with red, green, blue, and white glazes. The musical figures are 11.5 cm tall. Seven of the male figures are seated cross-legged facing outwards on the outer edge of the platforms. They are wearing round-necked, narrow-sleeved long robes, and soft headbands, and are holding musical instruments like sheng, xiao, pipa, konghou, flute, clappers, and panpipes, and are playing them. Standing in the middle is a female dancing figure, with a plump body, a high bun, and wearing a wide robe and long skirt, with her chest exposed. She is dancing. There is also a Hu figure leading the camel standing beside it. He is wearing a soft headband, a large collarless dark yellow semi-long coat, a belt, and long boots.

Hu music was popular during the prosperous Tang Dynasty, and this camel carrying musical and dancing figures is a testament to the fusion of Han and Hu cultures during the Tang Dynasty. This treasure of Ming ware showcases the flourishing scene of economic and cultural exchange between the East and West along the Silk Road, and Chang’an’s prosperity as the international metropolis at that time. The instruments played by the musical figures are mostly Hu instruments, while the dancers are all pottery figures wearing Han clothing. According to archaeological experts, these instruments were all playing music and dance from the Xinjiang region at that time, which later spread to the Hexi Corridor in Gansu and was adapted by the Han people, blending the characteristics of Han dance music to create a new form of dance music. Around the Kaiyuan and Tianbao years of the Tang Dynasty, this type of dance music had entered the imperial court. With a broad mind, the Tang Dynasty incorporated, adapted, and supplemented new and old dance music from both within and outside China, resulting in an unprecedented spectacular scene of great cultural fusion and unity among the various ethnic groups of China.

The three-color camel carrying musical figures is now housed in the Shaanxi Provincial Museum.

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Details of the three-color camel carrying musical figures and the musical and dancing figures on its humps

5. Three-color bowl

This was unearthed from the tomb of Princess Yongtai. The tomb of Princess Yongtai is one of the 17 accompanying tombs of the Qianling Mausoleum. It is located a few miles southeast of the Qianling Mausoleum. The tomb’s owner is Princess Yongtai, Li Xianhui. Li Xianhui was the daughter of Emperor Zhongzong of Tang, Li Xian, and Empress Wei. In the first year of the Dazhong reign of the Wu Zhou dynasty, the newly married princess and her husband, Wu Yanji, discussed the brothers Zhang Changzong and Zhang Yizhi, the lovers of Empress Wu Zetian. Empress Wu Zetian ordered her father, Li Xian, to deal with them. Li Xian, remembering the tragic scene of his two elder brothers being killed by their own mother, beat his daughter and son-in-law to death with a stick and reported to his mother to protect himself. When Emperor Zhongzong returned to the throne, he buried his daughter and son-in-law alongside the Qianling Mausoleum and specially authorized their tomb to be called a “mausoleum,” with the same status as an emperor’s. Although the tomb of Princess Yongtai was robbed, it still unearthed over 1,000 precious artifacts, including murals, pottery figures, wooden figures, three-color figures, gold, jade, and bronzeware. In particular, this three-color bowl, with its exquisite shape, vibrant colors, and unique decorations, reflects the highly developed ceramic craftsmanship of the Tang Dynasty. Due to its “dignified and stable shape, unique decoration, and exquisite craftsmanship, which is the finest of all,” it is considered a national treasure.

6. Red pottery female figure with a high bun

This was unearthed in 1950 from the Qinling Mausoleum of Emperor Liezu of the Southern Tang dynasty, Li Bian, in Zutang Mountain, Jiangning, Jiangsu.

The female figure is 49 cm tall. She has a round, plump face, a high bun, and her hands are placed on her chest. She is wearing a bodice and a double-breasted coat, with cloud shoulders and sleeves over the coat. Her waist is tied with a ribbon, her sleeves are hanging down, and the tips of her shoes can be seen slightly protruding from her skirt. Based on her luxurious clothing and dignified demeanor, this female figure symbolizes a woman of very high status. In terms of sculpting techniques, it inherits the excellent traditions of Tang Dynasty sculpture, such as the use of powder, rouge, and rounded faces, and one can still faintly see the Tang Dynasty style.

Clothing of Tang Dynasty women is divided into dresses, crowns and hats, and shoes. Tang Dynasty regulations stipulated that women’s clothing was divided into four categories: court attire, official attire, sacrificial attire, and daily attire. The first three are large and small ceremonial robes worn by empresses, concubines, and female officials at court meetings, sacrifices, and other formal occasions, while the latter is worn daily. Daily attire of Tang Dynasty women consisted of a shirt or tunic for the upper body and a skirt for the lower body, with a shawl over the shoulders. The shirt was a single-layer garment, while the tunic had padding and was only as short as the waist. The skirt was long and had many panels. In addition, there were other garments such as padded coats, half-sleeved jackets, and long robes. Padded coats were padded garments, longer than the tunic but shorter than the robe. Half-sleeved jackets were tight-fitting upper garments with short sleeves, worn over the shirt and popular in the early Tang Dynasty. Long robes were overgarments worn by women during dances, short and easy to remove. The colors of their dresses were rich and varied, with red, green, purple, and yellow being the most popular, as in the words of people at the time: “Red skirts are jealous of the pomegranate flowers,” “Lotus silk shirts and lotus silk skirts,” and “Many bend over to dance in turmeric skirts.” The shirts, tunics, padded coats, and skirts were often decorated with woven and embroidered patterns. The fabrics included silk, cotton, hemp, flax, and wool, with silk being the most commonly used.

In addition, “fashionable makeup,” open-necked clothing, men’s clothing, and Hu clothing were also important forms of clothing. “Fashionable makeup” refers to fashion. In the early Tang Dynasty, women wore narrow-sleeved, short-sleeved shirts and jackets, with a shawl around their shoulders, and a tight-fitting long skirt tied up to the chest, a simple style. During the prosperous Tang Dynasty, the dresses became wider, the waists were lowered, and the colors became more vibrant. By the middle and late Tang Dynasty, the dresses became wider and looser, and women often wore loose and flowing robes with wide sleeves, in luxurious colors. Open-necked clothing, men’s clothing, military uniforms, and Hu clothing were widely popular among women, especially during the prosperous Tang Dynasty. Open-necked clothing was a type of wide-sleeved shirt or tunic with the chest partially exposed. The fabric was made of gauze, described by people at the time as “loosely tied skirts half-concealing the chest,” “unevenly hiding the snowy lotus,” and “silk and gauze threads reveal the skin,” paired with trailing skirts, fully showcasing the graceful figure and natural beauty of Tang Dynasty women. However, “loosely tied skirts half-revealing the chest” was not something everyone could do. In the Tang Dynasty, only people of status could wear open-chest shirts. Princess Yongtai could expose her chest, and singers could expose their chests to please the ruling class, but women from ordinary families were not allowed to expose their chests. At that time, the half-exposed chest attire of the Tang Dynasty was somewhat similar to modern Western evening gowns, but shoulders and backs were not allowed to be exposed.

In addition, Tang Dynasty women favored military uniforms and men’s clothing. During the reign of Emperor Wuzong, Wang Cairen was often mistaken for the emperor by those presenting matters because she wore the same clothes as Emperor Wuzong. As the superior likes something, so will the inferior. During the prosperous Tang Dynasty, the wives of scholars all wore their husbands’ shirts, hats, and boots, and maidservants also imitated their mistresses and wore round-necked men’s garments, wrapped their heads in headbands, and wore black leather boots. Tang Dynasty women did not have the concept of Han and Hu differences. During the Kaiyuan and Tianbao years, on the streets of major cities like Chang’an and Luoyang, Han women wearing collarless, tight-fitting Hu garments with sashes could be seen everywhere, reflecting the open and athletic spirit of women in the prosperous Tang Dynasty. These habits of Tang Dynasty women can be found in the shapes and colors of the three-color female figures from the Tang Dynasty.