The ancient Egyptian deity Anubis is a fascinating figure whose identity and significance evolved dramatically from early dynastic times through the Greco-Roman period. Known initially as the original god of the dead, Anubis later became synonymous with mummification and funerary rituals, ensuring that life continued beyond death.
Origins of Anubis
Anubis is among the oldest known Egyptian gods, with his worship dating back to the Predynastic period. Early depictions of Anubis appear in inscriptions from the First Dynasty of pharaohs, where he was initially represented in the form of a jackal. Jackals, common in and around cemeteries, were seen scavenging near burial sites, which may have inspired early Egyptians to deify these creatures. Over time, this wild animal transformed into the anthropomorphic, jackal-headed god we recognize today.
Anubis’s association with the jackal is deeply symbolic. While jackals are typically brown, Anubis is portrayed as a black jackal. In ancient Egyptian symbolism, black was the color of the fertile Nile silt—an emblem of regeneration, fertility, and the cyclical nature of life. Thus, Anubis not only embodied the mystery of death but also represented rebirth and renewal.
The Greeks later adapted his name to Anubis, while the Egyptians knew him as Anpu or Inpu. His name is etymologically linked to the words for “to decay” and “royal child,” hinting at his roles in both decomposition and divine lineage. In many myths, Anubis is described as the adopted son of Osiris, the god who eventually supplanted him as the ruler of the dead.
Anubis in Early Egyptian Religion
In the earliest phases of Egyptian religion, Anubis was a central figure in the cult of the dead. He was revered as the principal deity overseeing the deceased, particularly in Upper Egypt. His title “Foremost of the Westerners” highlighted his role as the guardian of the necropolis—the western land of the dead.
As Egyptian religious practices evolved, the mythology of Anubis intertwined with that of Osiris, the god of resurrection. While Osiris became the dominant figure in the underworld pantheon, Anubis’s influence persisted. He took on critical roles in mummification and funerary rites. His responsibilities included guiding souls safely through the Duat (the Egyptian underworld) and ensuring that the process of embalming secured the physical body for the journey after death.
Additionally, Anubis shared a close connection with other deities associated with death and the afterlife. For instance, Wepwawet—the “Opener of Ways”—was another important figure in Upper Egyptian funerary rituals. Over time, many of Wepwawet’s functions were absorbed into Anubis’s domain, further solidifying his importance as a god of transition and passage.
The Mythology of Anubis
Egyptian mythology is rich and complex, featuring multiple, sometimes conflicting, narratives that coexisted harmoniously. Anubis’s mythological role is no exception. His portrayal varies from one text to another, and different traditions offer alternative accounts of his origins and deeds.
One common narrative centers on Anubis’s relationship with Osiris and Isis. In some versions of the myth, the infant Anubis is discovered by Isis during her quest to reassemble the dismembered body of her murdered husband, Osiris. According to these accounts, Anubis may have been abandoned or cast aside by other divine figures, only to be raised by Isis as a loyal servant and guide in the realm of the dead. In other tellings, Anubis’s birth predates the death of Osiris, and his destiny as a guide for souls was preordained. These varying accounts underline the fluidity of Egyptian mythology, where the divine roles and relationships could be reinterpreted according to different local and historical contexts.
Another prominent myth involving Anubis is his assistance in the embalming of Osiris. In this version, Anubis, sometimes accompanied by Thoth—the god of wisdom and healing—plays a pivotal role in the Opening of the Mouth Ceremony. This ritual was essential for preparing Osiris for his resurrection, symbolizing the reactivation of the senses and the soul’s readiness to embrace eternal life.
Some later texts and papyri, such as the Jumilhac Papyrus from the Ptolemaic era, depict dramatic confrontations between Anubis and Set, the god of chaos and disorder. In these stories, Set attempts to steal Osiris’s body from the place of embalming (the wabet), only to be thwarted repeatedly by a determined Anubis. In one account, after multiple failed attempts by Set—who even tried to disguise himself as Anubis—Anubis retaliates by castrating him and later branding him with hot irons, symbolically asserting the triumph of order over chaos. Such tales not only highlight Anubis’s martial attributes but also serve to reinforce the stability of the cosmic order, which was a central tenet of Egyptian religion.
Another intriguing myth is found in the Tale of Two Brothers, where Anubis appears as the older sibling of Bata, a lesser-known local bull-god. In this story, familial strife and miscommunication lead to tragic consequences, only for reconciliation to be achieved through divine intervention and a series of extraordinary events. This narrative, which intertwines themes of loyalty, betrayal, and redemption, hints at the multifaceted character of Anubis—not just as a guide to the dead but as a participant in the complex web of divine relationships that underscored the Egyptian conception of kingship and morality.
Anubis and the Afterlife
Perhaps the most enduring aspect of Anubis’s legacy is his role in the Egyptian vision of the afterlife. Central to Egyptian religious thought was the belief that death was not an end but a transition to a carefully managed and ordered existence beyond the mortal realm. Anubis was a key figure in this process, overseeing rituals that ensured the safe passage of the deceased to the underworld.
One of the most famous rites in which Anubis played a vital role was the Weighing of the Heart Ceremony. During this ritual, the heart of the deceased was measured against the feather of Ma’at, the goddess of truth and order. Anubis was entrusted with conducting this ceremony, acting as the judge’s assistant. If the heart balanced with the feather, the soul was granted access to the A’aru, or the Field of Reeds—a paradisiacal realm representing the ideal afterlife. However, if the heart proved too heavy, it was devoured by Ammut, a fearsome creature, thus condemning the soul to oblivion.
The importance of mummification in Egyptian religion cannot be overstated. The preservation of the body was crucial for the afterlife, as it served as the vessel for the soul’s continued existence. In this context, Anubis’s role in the embalming process took on profound significance. Priests, who specialized in the rites of mummification, often wore masks depicting Anubis, symbolically aligning themselves with his protective and guiding powers. The use of fragrant herbs and the meticulous care in preserving the body were all intended to honor the divine mandate that Anubis embodied—a promise that death was not final, but merely a passage to a new phase of existence.
Anubis also acted as a guardian of cemeteries and sacred necropolises, ensuring that the resting places of the dead were respected and protected from desecration. His vigilant presence in the underworld assured the living that their ancestors were cared for and that the cycle of life and death continued in a balanced and harmonious manner.
Political and Social Significance
The cult of Anubis flourished even as the Egyptian pantheon evolved, particularly during the rise of the Ennead of Heliopolis—a group of nine prominent deities including Osiris and Isis. In Upper Egypt, where Anubis was once the chief god of the dead, his influence persisted despite the shifting religious landscape. His enduring worship highlights not only his spiritual importance but also his role in the political and social life of ancient Egypt.
As religious practices and beliefs spread across Egypt, the functions of various deities were often merged or reinterpreted. In the case of Anubis, his attributes were gradually subsumed into the more comprehensive narrative of Osiris, who came to embody the ideal of resurrection and eternal life. Despite this, Anubis retained his unique identity as a protector and guide. His persistence in Egyptian culture is a testament to his foundational role in establishing the protocols and rituals that defined the Egyptian understanding of death and the afterlife.
The integration of Anubis’s cult with that of other deities also underscores the importance of flexibility in ancient Egyptian religion. As regions and dynasties came into contact and sometimes conflict, religious beliefs were adapted to reflect new political realities. The absorption of aspects of Wepwawet’s persona into that of Anubis, for example, is illustrative of how mythological figures could evolve in response to changing cultural and political dynamics. This adaptability not only ensured the survival of traditional practices but also allowed for the creation of a richly layered religious heritage that could accommodate both innovation and continuity.
Anubis Beyond Egypt
Anubis’s legacy did not remain confined to the borders of Egypt. Between the Late Period and the Ptolemaic Period, his cult expanded beyond traditional Egyptian society, capturing the imagination of neighboring cultures. The Greeks and Romans, in particular, were fascinated by Anubis. They admired his enigmatic nature and incorporated him into their own pantheons, sometimes merging his characteristics with those of their deities.
In the Greco-Roman world, Anubis was often syncretized with Hermes, the messenger god, creating the composite figure of Hermanubis. This hybrid deity was seen as a guide for souls and a protector in the journey to the underworld. Roman depictions of Anubis, whether on gems, amulets, or terracotta lamps, reveal a continued respect for his role as a mediator between life and death. Notably, Anubis was one of the few Egyptian deities whose worship extended beyond Egypt itself, a testament to the universal appeal of his mythos.
Prominent Roman writers, such as Virgil and Lucian, mentioned Anubis in their works, albeit sometimes with a critical tone. Yet despite any critical commentary, the influence of Anubis on Roman ideas of the afterlife and funerary customs remained significant. His depiction in art and literature during this period helped cement his image as the guardian of the dead—a figure who transcended cultural and temporal boundaries.
Anubis in Medieval and Modern Culture
The fascination with Anubis did not fade with the passage of centuries. During Medieval times, the mystique of ancient Egypt, combined with the revival of interest in alchemy and esoteric knowledge, led many European scholars and philosophers to study Anubis. His association with the mysteries of death, rebirth, and the afterlife resonated with those who sought to understand the hidden workings of the natural world.
In the Renaissance, however, the focus of esoteric studies shifted more towards Thoth—often syncretized with Hermes as Hermes Trismegistus—though Anubis retained a loyal following among those intrigued by ancient Egyptian symbolism. In modern popular culture, Anubis has become an iconic figure, frequently depicted in films, television shows, and video games. Despite these portrayals often straying from historical accuracy, the core elements of his mythology—his role as a guide to the afterlife and protector of the dead—continue to capture the imagination of audiences worldwide.
For example, in contemporary media such as The Mummy franchise and various video games, Anubis is often portrayed as a fearsome or even malevolent figure. Yet in other instances, he is shown in a more nuanced light—embodying the solemn duty of guiding souls and ensuring the continuity of life beyond death. This modern reinterpretation reflects a broader trend in which ancient myths are continually reimagined to speak to contemporary concerns and sensibilities.
The Cultural and Religious Impact of Anubis
Anubis’s enduring legacy can be seen not only in the surviving art and literature of ancient Egypt but also in the lasting influence he has had on subsequent cultural and religious traditions. His presence in funerary practices and his association with mummification helped shape the rituals and beliefs surrounding death in ancient Egypt, providing a framework for understanding the mystery of mortality and the promise of renewal.
In Egyptian society, the rituals associated with Anubis were vital in providing comfort and assurance to the living. By offering a structured and sacred approach to death, these practices helped reinforce the idea that death was not an end, but rather a transition to a new state of being. The symbolism of the black jackal, the importance of the embalming process, and the dramatic imagery of the Weighing of the Heart Ceremony all contributed to a worldview in which order, balance, and the eternal cycle of life and death were paramount.
Furthermore, the adaptability of Anubis’s myth—his ability to absorb and integrate the attributes of other deities—demonstrates a broader principle of ancient religious thought. Egyptian religion was inherently flexible, allowing for the incorporation of new ideas and the recontextualization of old ones. Anubis, as a deity, exemplified this fluidity, evolving from a local guardian spirit to a universally revered figure who played a key role in one of the world’s oldest and most influential religious traditions.
