Before the Amorites, laws were mostly passed down through tradition and decided by judges based on past cases. However, during Hammurabi’s rule around 1792-1750 BCE, written laws became more common. Hammurabi, a warrior king of the Amorite dynasty, is best known for his law code inscribed on a black diorite stela, which is well-preserved and provides insight into ancient Near Eastern society.
The Law of Babylon
The Law Code of Hammurabi covers various areas such as family, property, criminal, and commercial law. It also highlights how an individual’s social class influenced their legal treatment in Amorite Babylon. The code distinguished between property-owning freemen (awilum), non-property-owning dependents (mushkennum), and slaves (wardum) at the lowest rung of society. Punishments under the code could be severe, particularly for crimes against the gods or the state.
A notable section of the code emphasized strict consequences for those who stole from the gods or the palace. It stated that both the thief and the recipient of the stolen goods would face the death penalty.
The codification of laws was a significant advancement in ancient Near Eastern civilization. Following Hammurabi’s lead, later Mesopotamian societies, and potentially even the Israelites, were influenced by his code. Many biblical historians suggest that the Covenant Code in Exodus was influenced by Hammurabi’s code due to similarities in language. This concept of written laws then spread from Israel throughout the Near East and Europe, blending with other legal traditions.
Babylonian Science and Architecture
The Babylonians inherited scientific, mathematical, and architectural knowledge from earlier Mesopotamian cultures, which they shared with neighboring civilizations. It is essential to understand that ancient Near Eastern science differed greatly from modern science, as magic and religion played integral roles in Babylonian scientific practices. The Babylonians did not engage in theoretical science by developing theorems or proofs. Nevertheless, Babylon was renowned for its scholarly achievements, particularly in mathematics and astronomy.
The Babylonians used a counting system based on 60, inherited from the Sumerians. This system included fractional numbers and positional numerical writing. Division was done through reciprocal multiplication, requiring the development of multiplication tables. Powers and roots were later developed as well. Babylonians kept meticulous records, leading to thousands of mathematical texts that are now found in museums worldwide.
[block id=”related-posts”]
Babylonian Astronomy and Astrology
Babylonian astronomy and astrology are well-known but not fully understood. The ancient Babylonian version of astrology was different from modern astrology, being subordinate to astronomy originally. By the end of the second millennium, during the Kassite dynasty, astrology gained popularity. It was used by Babylonian kings for state matters like war, diplomacy, and agriculture, with priests interpreting omens from the stars.
The practice of astrology, which is a blend of art and science, originated from the ancient science of astronomy. The Sumerians, an early Mesopotamian civilization, were the first to show interest in studying the universe. They began mapping celestial bodies and named them after their deities. Priests who also served as scientists observed the skies from ziggurats and documented their findings on cuneiform tablets.
Astronomy gained significance in Babylon around the sixth century BCE during the Neo-Babylonian dynasty. Scientists utilized their observations to create calendars. The Babylonian calendar was quite precise, although occasionally an extra month was added to align lunar and solar years. Babylonian astronomers greatly influenced later societies. The twelve months of the Neo-Babylonian calendar were later adopted by Judeans and Syrians.
Greek astronomers made a significant impact after traveling to Babylon during the Hellenistic period. They learned from Babylonian scientists, further advancing the field of astronomy.
Babylonian Pharmacology and Chemistry
The Babylonians made significant advancements in medicine, although their surgical techniques were not as advanced as those of the Egyptians during the same time period. While the Egyptians were performing complex surgeries and documenting them, the Babylonians focused on protochemistry. One notable Babylonian chemist was Tapputi-Belatekallim, a woman mentioned in a cuneiform tablet from the reign of the Kassite King Adadshumusur around 1216-1187 BCE. Her name suggests she was the “female overseer of the palace,” with one of her main roles believed to be the palace’s perfumer.
In the late second millennium BCE, many texts on perfumes were written in Babylon and other Mesopotamian cities, though few provided detailed processes. Only one text offers a comprehensive description of maceration and extraction, using water followed by oil as the perfume base. These descriptions hint that ancient Babylonians may have been familiar with sublimation, the process of a solid turning into gas.
An artifact known as the Stela of the Protective Goddess, Lama, from Kassite Babylon around 1307-1282 BCE, is an example of Babylonian art depicting protective deities. This stela can be found at the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York.
The Babylonians utilized their advanced knowledge of chemistry not only to create perfumes but also ingredients for medicines. Their influence on later Middle Eastern cultures was significant. Al-Kindi, an Arab polymath from around 801-873 CE, is credited with writing the first account of wine distillation. However, cuneiform tablets suggest that the Babylonians had been distilling perfumes over 2,000 years before al-Kindi, indicating the antiquity of the distillation process. It is possible that al-Kindi might have drawn at least some of his knowledge from Babylonian oral traditions that were passed down and referenced by early Arab scholars.
Babylonian Ziggurats
Ziggurats, Mesopotamian temple complexes shaped like rhomboids stacked on top of each other, were initially constructed by the Sumerians during the Uruk Period around 3500-2900 BCE. These early ziggurats were basic structures made of mudbrick platforms with towers. They served various purposes such as religious temples, scribal schools, and astronomical observatories. Unfortunately, due to their mudbrick construction, few ziggurats have survived over time, with one of the most notable ones located in Babylon.
King Nebuchadnezzar II, who reigned from 604-562 BCE in the Neo-Babylonian empire, commissioned the Entemenaki ziggurat dedicated to the god Marduk. This ziggurat inspired people well into modern times. The Greek historian Herodotus from the fifth century BCE even described the grandeur of the Entemenaki ziggurat.
The summit of the highest tower in Babylon features a grand temple with a luxurious couch and a golden table beside it. The shrine within the temple does not contain any images, and according to the Chaldean priests of Bel, only one Assyrian woman chosen by the god spends the night there.
Scholars suggest that the Entemenanki ziggurat, a central structure in Babylon, may have inspired the biblical Tower of Babel (Genesis 11:1-9). The city covered over 2,200 acres with an outer wall forming a perimeter of more than eleven miles. The Ishtar Gate, the eighth gate into the city dedicated to the goddess Ishtar by Nebuchadnezzar, was a symbol of the king’s opulence and authority.
Babylonian Empires and Geopolitics
The Babylonian dynasties were known for their skill in geopolitics and imperial policies, which influenced later Near Eastern civilizations. Hammurabi was the first ruler to establish Babylon as the center of imperial power around 1750 BCE. He expanded his influence by defeating neighboring states like Larsa, Eshnunna, Mari, and Assyria. Although Hammurabi’s empire did not last long, it served as a model for future Mesopotamian empires.
During the Kassite dynasty from 1474-1159 BCE, the Babylonians reached their peak in geopolitical power. The Kassites, who adopted Akkadian language and Babylonian culture, maintained their own names and language but were otherwise integrated into Babylonian society. They established diplomatic relations with Egypt during the reign of Pharaoh Thutmose III.
By becoming part of the Great Powers club with Egypt, Hatti, Alashiya, Mitanni, and later Assyria, the Babylonians controlled important trade routes that brought valuable goods like lapis lazuli and horses. In exchange, they received gold from Egypt, leading them to create a proto-gold standard. Notably, all diplomatic communication among the Great Powers was conducted in Akkadian cuneiform, the language of Babylon.
The Neo-Babylonian dynasty, which reigned from 626-539 BCE, had a significant impact on the region. Under the rule of King Nebuchadnezzar II, the dynasty expanded its borders to include the Levant (Syria-Palestine) up to the “brook of Egypt.” According to the Old Testament book of 2 Kings 24-25, Nebuchadnezzar II defeated Judah in 597 BCE and deported a large portion of its population. He then appointed Zedekiah as a puppet ruler, who later rebelled against Babylon. In response, the Babylonians deported most of Judah’s remaining population in 587 BCE. While Nebuchadnezzar successfully quelled the rebellion, his harsh tactics ensured that Babylon would be remembered for its brutality.
