The Battle of Fort Sumter in April 1861 marked the beginning of the US Civil War, leading to a rush for mobilization by both the Union and the Confederacy. The Confederate capital was moved from Montgomery, Alabama, to Richmond, Virginia, creating a belief among Northerners that a swift capture of Richmond could end the war. The capitals of the two sides, Richmond and Washington DC, were only 100 miles apart.
Victory Goes to the Confederacy
The first major battle of the US Civil War, the First Battle of Bull Run (or First Manassas), saw both sides unprepared. Union President Abraham Lincoln, succumbing to public pressure, pushed for a quick attack despite the advice of General-in-Chief Winfield Scott. Many Union volunteers had signed up for only 90 days, and a number of civilians, including congressmen and dignitaries, came to watch the battle, expecting a quick victory over the Confederates.
However, the battle did not go as anticipated. Both sides had inexperienced and untrained troops with similar-looking uniforms and insignias, leading to confusion. Confederate reinforcements turned the tide in their favor, and individual Union commanders’ failure to capitalize on initial successes allowed the Confederates to regroup. Ultimately, the Union army retreated to Washington DC, with the Confederates too exhausted to pursue.
Timeline of the First Battle of Bull Run
On July 16, 1861, a Union army led by General Irvin McDowell set out from Washington DC to end the rebellion by capturing Richmond. By July 18, they neared Manassas, Virginia, where they were stopped by the stream Bull Run, behind which a Confederate army under General P.G.T. Beauregard was positioned. Although McDowell initially outnumbered Beauregard’s forces, the Confederates quickly reinforced via railroad.
At approximately 2:30 AM on July 21, the Union army began its march toward battle, with fighting commencing about three hours later. Using signal flags, the Confederates coordinated their positions and prevented being overrun. By 10:00 AM, the fierce combat saw some Union victories, but Confederate reinforcements and the defense by General Thomas Jackson, earning him the nickname “Stonewall,” turned the tide. Mistakenly believing they were firing on their own troops, Union forces ceased fire, creating more confusion.
In the late afternoon, Stonewall Jackson’s troops launched a screaming charge that broke the Union lines. The Union army retreated that evening, returning to Washington DC.
Causes of the First Battle of Bull Run
Although the Confederate Constitution was established in Montgomery, Alabama in February 1861, Richmond, Virginia was selected as the Confederate capital after the Battle of Fort Sumter initiated the Civil War. The choice of Richmond was strategic for several reasons:
- Inspiration for Virginians: Placing the capital in Virginia aimed to inspire local residents to fight fervently for the Confederacy.
- Industrial and Transportation Hub: Richmond was the second largest city in the Confederacy, with significant industrial capabilities and a vital railroad hub.
- Historical Significance: Virginia’s historical role in the American Revolutionary War lent symbolic weight to its selection as the capital.
The proximity of Richmond to Washington DC made it a prime target for the Union, which saw the capture of the Confederate capital as a potential quick end to the rebellion.
The Union’s initial strategy was influenced by differing perspectives within its leadership. General-in-Chief Winfield Scott proposed the “Anaconda Plan,” which emphasized a naval blockade to suffocate the Southern economy and a focus on training Union armies before engaging in major battles. Scott’s plan also included focusing on the Western Theater rather than directly attacking the Confederacy near Washington DC.
However, public and political pressure forced President Abraham Lincoln to pursue a more immediate and aggressive approach. The public demanded swift action, leading Lincoln to order an advance on Richmond, resulting in the First Battle of Bull Run.
Significance of the First Battle of Bull Run
The First Battle of Bull Run, fought on July 21, 1861, was a wake-up call for both the Union and the Confederacy. The Union’s expectation of a swift victory was shattered when their forces were defeated and forced to retreat to Washington DC. This battle highlighted the serious nature of the conflict and dispelled any illusions that the war would be quick or easy.
Both sides recognized the need for better training and preparation. The inexperience of the troops was evident, and the hardships and horrors of war were starkly realized. The South’s victory at Bull Run boosted Confederate morale and temporarily raised hopes for a peace settlement that would recognize Southern independence. However, this hope was quickly dashed as the Union resolved to continue the fight.
President Lincoln, realizing the complexity and brutality of the war, criticized his generals for their cautious approach and failure to exploit their advantages. The battle underscored that the war would be prolonged and brutal, requiring significant strategy and effort from both sides.
5 Facts About the First Battle of Bull Run
1. Casualties
The First Battle of Bull Run, the first major battle of the American Civil War, resulted in nearly 5,000 total casualties. Approximately 3,000 of these casualties were Union troops, while around 2,000 were Confederate troops. The Union suffered more in terms of both killed and wounded soldiers. A significant number of Union soldiers were also listed as missing or captured, partly because the Union forces retreated back to Washington DC, leaving the battlefield under Confederate control.
2. Commanders
Union forces were commanded by Brigadier General Irvin McDowell, a West Point graduate and veteran of the Mexican-American War. Despite his credentials, McDowell’s lack of field experience made his appointment controversial. After the defeat at Bull Run, McDowell was replaced by General George McClellan, who later fought in the Battle of Antietam. McDowell also led Union forces at the Second Battle of Bull Run, where he was defeated again, resulting in his reassignment to California.
Confederate forces were led by Brigadier General P.G.T. Beauregard, another West Point graduate and Mexican-American War veteran. Beauregard had already gained prominence by initiating the Civil War with the bombardment of Fort Sumter. Following his victory at Bull Run, Beauregard was transferred to the Western Theater, where he faced Ulysses S. Grant at the Battle of Shiloh. He later commanded defensive operations in the Eastern Theater before retiring to a successful business career in Louisiana.
3. Number of Forces Involved
General Irvin McDowell marched south from Washington DC toward Richmond with about 35,000 troops, though not all were effectively engaged in battle. The Confederates started with fewer troops but quickly brought in reinforcements via railroad, achieving a numerical superiority on the battlefield of 32,000 to the Union’s 28,000. This battle was the largest and most destructive in American history up to that point.
4. Visiting Manassas, Virginia Today
Manassas National Battlefield Park preserves the sites of both the First and Second Battles of Bull Run. Visitors can explore the 1-mile hiking trail around key locations from the First Battle of Bull Run and join ranger-guided tours for both battles. The Henry Hill Visitor Center serves as the main point of interest for the first battle, while the Brawner Farm Interpretive Center caters to those interested in the second battle.
5. Trivia: Rampant Confusion With Uniforms and Flags
The First Battle of Bull Run was marked by significant confusion due to similar uniforms and flags. Many Confederate soldiers wore blue uniforms, a color also used by Union troops, which led to misidentifications during the battle. The famous distinction of Union troops in dark blue and Confederate troops in light gray only became widely recognized later in the war. The Confederacy struggled with standardizing uniforms due to economic challenges, resulting in many Confederate uniforms having a yellowish hue as the gray dye wore off.
The “stars and bars” Confederate battle flag, often mistaken for the official flag of the Confederacy, was introduced by Confederate generals Joseph E. Johnston and P.G.T. Beauregard after the First Battle of Bull Run to reduce battlefield confusion. Designed by William Miles, this flag was formally presented in November 1861 and gained iconic status only after the war.
Aftermath of the First Battle of Bull Run: A Long, Hard Civil War
The Confederate victory at the First Battle of Bull Run demonstrated that the Civil War would not be a swift conflict. The success of Confederate forces in routing Brigadier General Irvin McDowell’s Army of Northeastern Virginia gave the South confidence to continue fighting for independence. This battle shattered any remaining illusions in the North that the rebellion could be quickly quelled, leading to a significant escalation in military efforts on both sides.
The Union’s defeat at Bull Run underscored the need for increased mobilization and a broader use of force. President Abraham Lincoln recognized that the South’s resolve was strong and that more aggressive action was necessary. Early in the war, Lincoln often felt that his generals were overly cautious and not taking the necessary steps to press their advantages.
In response to this perceived caution, Lincoln issued General War Order No. 1 in January 1862, which called for all Union land and naval forces to initiate operations against Confederate forces. This order aimed to break the stalemate and push Union forces into action
In the spring of 1862, General George McClellan, leading the Army of the Potomac, launched the Peninsula Campaign. This ambitious operation aimed to capture Richmond by advancing from the southeast, bypassing the heavily defended northern approaches. McClellan assembled a large, well-trained force, but despite initial successes, the campaign ultimately failed to capture the Confederate capital. The Peninsula Campaign’s failure highlighted the complexities and challenges of the war, reinforcing the understanding that the conflict would be prolonged and grueling.
As the war dragged on, the Union increasingly adopted the strategy of “total war” to break the South’s resistance. This approach sought to destroy not only the Confederate armies but also the economic and civilian infrastructure supporting them. One of the most notable examples of this strategy was Union General William Tecumseh Sherman’s March to the Sea following the Battle of Atlanta in 1864. Sherman’s campaign aimed to demoralize the South and cripple its ability to continue fighting by targeting resources and infrastructure.
The war also had a profound impact on slavery. As Union forces advanced into Confederate territory, many enslaved people seized the opportunity to escape and seek freedom behind Union lines. The presence of these “contrabands of war” challenged the institution of slavery and contributed to the growing abolitionist sentiment in the North. This movement culminated in President Lincoln’s issuance of the Emancipation Proclamation on January 1, 1863, which declared the freedom of all enslaved people in Confederate-held territory.
The First Battle of Bull Run was a pivotal moment in the Civil War, revealing the true scale and intensity of the conflict. It dispelled the notion of a quick resolution and set the stage for a prolonged and brutal struggle. The Union’s response to this defeat, including increased mobilization, aggressive military campaigns, and the adoption of total war, demonstrated the commitment to preserving the nation and ultimately led to the defeat of the Confederacy.
