Immigration policy in the United States has historically been a source of debate and periods of heightened tension. During the nation’s early years, from 1781 into the early 19th century, open immigration was encouraged to bolster economic growth and support westward expansion. The Naturalization Act of 1790 granted citizenship to “free white persons” who had resided within the country for two years, swore allegiance to the Constitution, and were deemed of good character.
The Alien and Sedition Acts of 1798 temporarily extended the residency requirement for citizenship to fourteen years and empowered the government to deport individuals considered undesirable. These acts expired in 1802, and the residency requirement was reduced to five years. During the Civil War, the federal government established a commissioner of immigration within the State Department to actively promote immigration. Further legislation in 1870 made people of African descent eligible for naturalization as US citizens, marking major progress related to the 14th and 15th Amendments.
Reconstruction and the Transcontinental Railroad
Following the Civil War (1861-1865), the United States sought to reunify the country and further develop its vast western territories. The Transcontinental Railroad, spanning from Council Bluffs, Iowa, to San Francisco, California, became a vital component of this vision. The Central Pacific Railroad faced a labor shortage and turned to low-cost Chinese workers who endured grueling conditions constructing sections of the railroad through the Sierra Nevada mountains. These workers, unfortunately, faced widespread discrimination. Anti-Chinese sentiment culminated in the Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882, effectively barring immigration from Asia for the next six decades.
The Rise of Nativism in 19th Century America
While the United States generally embraced immigration as an engine of economic growth, many citizens remained hostile toward immigrants perceived as different or ‘un-American.’ Nativist sentiments surged in the 1830s and 1840s, primarily directed at Irish Catholic immigrants. This initial wave of nativism, driven by concerns over religious differences, peaked in the early 1850s with the formation of the “Know-Nothing” party.
Nativism further intensified with the sharp increase in immigration from the 1840s onward. Nativist groups often characterized immigrants as dangerous and disloyal due to their religious affiliations. In areas with significant Catholic populations, political tensions flared as politicians sought their votes and awarded them government positions. “Know-Nothings,” aligned with the temperance movement, further demonized Catholic immigrants by portraying them as disruptive drunkards.
The Transcontinental Railroad and Anti-Asian Sentiment
Prior to the 1860s, much of the Northeast held limited knowledge of Asia and its people. The American West remained a sparsely settled frontier. However, this changed dramatically with the Homestead Act of 1862 and the Transcontinental Railroad. The railroad not only facilitated cross-country travel, but also fueled economic opportunity for marginalized groups, including Mormons and immigrants.
On the West Coast, Chinese immigrants formed the backbone of the labor force constructing the railroad eastward. Initially skeptical, railroad contractors found Chinese workers to be exceptionally diligent. This, however, fueled resentment among white workers who feared competition.
Chinese Immigration to the West Coast
Chinese immigration to the United States West Coast commenced in the 1840s, primarily involving young men seeking manual labor opportunities. The California Gold Rush of the 1850s attracted a significant influx of Chinese workers in search of fortune. During this period, the first Chinese families began to settle in the region, often motivated by economic hardship in their homeland. Following the decline of the gold rush, Chinese immigrants were frequently employed as a source of inexpensive labor. By 1851, approximately 25,000 Chinese immigrants had arrived in California, many of whom swiftly realized the exaggerated nature of the gold rush narratives.
While some Chinese men returned to China and later immigrated with their families, the majority remained in the United States. The 1880 census revealed a stark gender imbalance, with roughly twenty Chinese men for every Chinese woman. Beyond mining and railroad construction, Chinese laborers found employment in agriculture. Over time, major Californian cities witnessed the development of distinct Chinese enclaves, commonly referred to as “Chinatowns.” These neighborhoods provided some immigrants with avenues for offering services to their fellow Chinese residents. The 1868 Burlingame-Seward Treaty further expanded Chinese immigration, enabling American businesses to hire low-wage Chinese workers.
Challenges Faced by Chinese Immigrants
Nineteenth-century working conditions for the majority of immigrants to the United States were arduous. However, Chinese immigrants endured even greater hardship, fueled by racial discrimination and wage disparities. Compared to their Irish counterparts, Chinese laborers on the Transcontinental Railroad received lower pay and lacked complimentary lodging. Employers often exploited Chinese workers to suppress wages for white laborers, leading to resentment misdirected at the Chinese community. Eventually, white railroad workers came to collaborate with their Chinese colleagues to avoid replacement.
Beyond the railroad industry, Chinese immigrants contended with discriminatory legislation that restricted their employment prospects. Violence against them was commonplace, with perpetrators rarely facing consequences. Chinese workers were vulnerable to robbery and often faced fatal violence upon resisting. Fueled by racism and economic anxieties, there was minimal public advocacy for the protection of Chinese immigrant laborers. Anti-Chinese riots resulted in displacement and the destruction of property in Western towns. These violent outbreaks intensified following the completion of the Transcontinental Railroad, as white workers feared competition from the newly unemployed Chinese labor force.
Mounting Pressure and the Chinese Exclusion Act
Chinese immigrants in the United States faced systemic discrimination during the 19th century. Local and state legislation imposed discriminatory fees, obstructed traditional practices, prohibited access to public services like education, and even barred Chinese testimony in court, effectively denying them legal recourse. As the economy faltered in the 1870s, Chinese immigrants bore the brunt of baseless accusations, becoming scapegoats for declining wages and unemployment.
Anti-Chinese immigration sentiment gained momentum in Congress during the late 1870s. The Democratic Party, politically influential in the West, pushed for a complete ban on Chinese immigration. However, efforts by states to restrict Chinese immigration clashed with the existing Burlingame-Seward Treaty. In 1879, a Congressional attempt to limit immigration was vetoed by President Rutherford B. Hayes on these grounds. Diplomatic efforts led to the 1880 Angell Treaty, which finally opened a path for restrictions on Chinese immigration.
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Passage and Perpetuation of the Act
The Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882 capitalized on the framework established by the Angell Treaty, marking the first federal law to significantly curtail immigration in the United States. Past American ideals of welcoming migrants were sharply reversed. Subsequent efforts sought to eliminate potential avenues for Chinese immigration through stricter amendments passed in 1884. The Scott Act of 1888 further tightened restrictions, prohibiting re-entry to the United States for long-established Chinese residents who had traveled to China.
In 1892, the exclusionary measures targeting the Chinese were renewed for another decade. While the US Supreme Court upheld birthright citizenship in the 1898 case of United States v. Wong Kim Ark, Chinese immigrants suffered greatly. The ability for Chinese men residing in the US to return to China and bring their wives had been severely curtailed. In 1902, the exclusionary policies were extended indefinitely and expanded to include US territories like Hawaii and the Philippines.
The Ramifications of the Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882
The Chinese Exclusion Act, rather than deterring anti-Chinese sentiment, fueled existing prejudices. Violence against Chinese immigrants and workers erupted throughout the Western United States in the 1880s, with notable incidents occurring in Wyoming and Oregon. The Chinese government, perceiving the Geary Act of 1902 (which extended the ban) as an affront, organized a brief anti-American boycott. This action was ultimately unsuccessful due to diplomatic pressure from U.S. President Theodore Roosevelt. Economically, the ban on Chinese labor proved counterproductive, resulting in a widespread decline in labor wages and undermining nativist arguments about Chinese workers “stealing jobs.”
The law achieved its intended goal of drastically curtailing Chinese immigration; fewer than 2,000 new Chinese residents were recorded in the 1890 U.S. Census. Following World War I, similar numerical restrictions targeting specific countries expanded to Europe through the Immigration Act of 1924. This legislation also banned immigration from other Asian nations, including Japan, escalating political tensions between the U.S. and Japan. Such measures reflected a desire to preserve “traditional American values” and rising anxieties about immigration in the aftermath of post-World War I radical movements, particularly the Russian Revolution.
World War II: The Repeal of the Chinese Exclusion Act
America’s entry into World War II following the attack on Pearl Harbor placed the nation among the Allied Powers, formally aligning it with China against Japan. Maintaining a ban on Chinese immigration proved politically untenable in this context. Consequently, the Chinese Exclusion Act and its subsequent revisions were repealed in 1943. However, a strict quota system replaced the outright ban, limiting Chinese immigration to only 105 individuals annually. The Chinese Civil War, which resumed immediately after World War II, effectively halted immigration from China following the Communist victory in 1949.
It was not until the normalization of U.S.-China diplomatic relations in 1979 that Chinese immigration significantly resumed. By 2016, approximately 2 million Chinese immigrants resided in the United States, with a roughly 30 percent increase in immigration from China occurring between 2010 and 2017.
The Legacy of the Chinese Exclusion Act and Contemporary Immigration Debates
The passage of the Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965 marked a significant shift in U.S. immigration policy. By abolishing the discriminatory quota system established in the 1920s, it facilitated increased immigration from Latin America, Asia, and Africa. The Act favored applicants based on skills and existing familial ties to U.S. residents, enabling relatives of Chinese immigrants (who faced exclusion since 1882) to obtain visas. Consequently, since its implementation in 1968, the proportion of Asian and Asian-American individuals within the U.S. population has grown notably, enriching the nation’s diversity.
Despite the liberalization of immigration policies since the 1880s, nativist sentiments continue to shape political discourse in the United States. While currently directed primarily at Latin American immigrants, the long-standing argument that “cheap foreign labor” endangers American jobs persists. Some contend that a resurgence of far-right conservatism within the U.S. has fueled a new wave of nativism, evident in calls to construct a wall along the U.S.-Mexico border. Immigration from Latin America continues to be a contentious political issue, with debates surrounding border security likely to dominate future election cycles.
