As we enter the beautiful Mediterranean Sea, leaving the Atlantic and Gibraltar behind, we step into the cradle of Greek history. Plato observed, “Like frogs around a pond, we have settled down upon the shores of this sea.” Even centuries before Christ, the Greeks established outposts along the coasts of Spain, France, Italy, Sicily, North Africa, and the Aegean. Their influence permeated the Mediterranean, reshaping coastlines and islands. Greece itself was merely a part of the vast ancient Greek world.
Why did this flourishing civilization choose the Mediterranean, unlike their predecessors who thrived beside the great rivers, or our modern societies built upon the Atlantic? Was it the temperate climate? While the Mediterranean offers generous winters and warm summers, it lacks the fertile alluvial soils of the Nile or the Indus. Its landscape is often rocky and unforgiving, prone to drought and seismic instability. Climate alone cannot explain the rise of Greece.
The beauty and strategic distribution of the Aegean islands hold the key. These jewels of land offered breathtaking scenery and safe havens at short intervals, never far from sight for seafaring vessels. Their geography, combined with favorable currents and winds, encouraged navigation. The Phoenicians and Greeks honed their maritime skills here, developing advanced ships and forging reliable trade routes.
As commerce shifted to the sea, Egypt and the empires of the Near East declined. Phoenician colonies sprouted across the Mediterranean, and Greece bloomed with newfound wealth and power.
Rediscovering Crete: The Minoan Civilization
In Homer’s epic poems, the island of Crete was lauded for its wealth and power. While Greece eventually dimmed its memory of Crete, the island was once home to a remarkable Bronze Age civilization that dominated the Aegean Sea centuries before the Trojan War. Its sophistication was perhaps an echo of the “Golden Age” celebrated in Homer’s verse.
Modern archaeology has brilliantly unearthed this lost chapter of history. Crete, strategically situated between major powers, was blessed with a favorable climate and diverse landscape. This provided a foundation for its advanced civilization to flourish. Aristotle noted Crete’s location was key to the rise of the legendary King Minos and his maritime empire.
Though classical scholars clung to tales of Minos, modern historians dismissed them as myth—until 1878 when a Cretan merchant, Minos Kalokairinos, uncovered fascinating antiquities near Candia. Even Heinrich Schliemann, famed for his discoveries of Troy and Mycenae, recognized the site as the likely location of the ancient city of Cnossus. Sadly, negotiations stalled, and Schliemann passed away before he could pursue this archaeological treasure.
Dr. Arthur Evans, a British archaeologist, entered the picture in 1893. Intrigued by mysterious hieroglyphics on amulet stones, he traveled to Crete. In 1900, he acquired the Cnossus site and began excavations. In an astonishingly short period, he revealed a grand palace complex, seemingly the legendary Labyrinth. This discovery, along with a trove of inscribed tablets, ignited a wave of research in Crete.
Archaeologists from across the globe flocked to the island, uncovering other Minoan centers. Italians unearthed a brilliantly painted sarcophagus and another palatial complex, Americans made vital finds, and Cretan scholars joined the effort. Ironically, this international scientific cooperation occurred as political tensions were brewing in Europe.
The Challenge of Classification
Excavations revealed a wealth of artifacts from palaces, paintings, sculptures, tools, and more. How was this material to be categorized and dated? Sir Arthur Evans tentatively assigned dates based on the depth at which objects were found, stylistic shifts in pottery, and similarities between Cretan discoveries and finds from regions with established timelines.
Evans uncovered a Neolithic foundation at the deepest level – pottery was handmade, decorations were simple, and tools were of polished stone. He meticulously classified pottery styles, drawing connections to Mesopotamia and Egypt. This analysis allowed the post-Neolithic, prehistoric Cretan culture to be divided into Early, Middle, and Late Minoan periods, each further subdivided into three phases.
The appearance of copper marked the transition from the Neolithic Age to the dawn of a new Cretan civilization. The Bronze Age began when Cretans started mixing copper with tin. During Middle Minoan I, the first palaces emerged at Cnossus, Phaestus, and Mallia – elaborate structures revealing advanced architecture and engineering. Pottery became vibrantly colored, frescoes decorated walls, and hieroglyphics evolved into a form of linear script.
However, at the close of Middle Minoan II, disaster struck. Palaces were destroyed as if by an earthquake, or perhaps by conflict between kingdoms. Pottery was covered in ash, evidence of the destruction of cities across the island. The Hyksos conquest of Egypt could have led to further regional instability, resulting in a period of stagnation in Crete known as Middle Minoan III.
Despite these setbacks, the resilient Cretan civilization revived during the Late Minoan Age. Grand new palaces filled Cnossus, Phaestus, Tylissus, Hagia Triada, and Gournia. The wealth and refinement evident in these structures surpasses what would be seen in Greece until the time of Pericles. Art, literature, and industry flourished. Frescoes depict a sophisticated society, scenes of life surrounding the court, and even gladiatorial contests. This opulent lifestyle marks the 16th and 15th centuries BCE as the height of Aegean civilization – the golden age of Crete.
Reconstruction of a lost civilization
In attempting to understand the lost Cretan culture, we must be mindful that our reconstruction resembles a fragmented form of historical television, where much is left to interpretation. Crete’s mysterious written tablets will hold further secrets until fully deciphered.
Appearance and Style
Cretan art reveals physiques resembling the double-ax central to their religion. Both men and women were slim with incredibly narrow waists. Short and athletic, they had tanned skin (men) or fair complexions (women). In dress, both genders favored elaborate hats, loose skirts, and often went bare-chested. Women’s attire was particularly striking: tightly laced corsets, bare breasts covered sometimes by sheer fabric, and colorful, multi-layered skirts. The effect was graceful and luxurious, a style more reminiscent of modern fashion than ancient Greece. The famous “La Parisienne” fresco showcases this provocative charm and reveals a society advanced in the arts.
Cretan men and women adorned themselves elaborately. Women displayed hairpins, necklaces, and bracelets of finely worked precious materials, while men wore rings and bracelets (occasionally as symbols of status). In Cretan life, the drive to express beauty was prominent for both genders.
Contrary to many ancient cultures, Minoan women were not secluded or restricted. Art and archaeology suggest they worked alongside men in various tasks, enjoyed public life, and held positions of social authority. Their frequent depiction in Cretan religious imagery underscores their prominence in this surprisingly advanced society.
Minoan Society
Historians hypothesize that Crete’s earliest communities were fractured, consisting of petty clans locked in territorial disputes. However, the emergence of powerful leaders ultimately unified these clans, establishing city-states such as Cnossus, Phaestus, and Tylissus. Cnossus eventually prevailed, creating the island’s first unified kingdom. The new Cretan power established a formidable navy, dominating the Aegean, controlling piracy, and building a vast palatial network – indicative of an early form of centralized, expansionist government.
The foundation of this new order rested on a blend of force, religion, and well-defined law. Cretan monarchs skillfully wielded religion, claiming descent from deities to legitimize their authority. Additionally, recurring ceremonies further served to reinforce their divine mandate. Symbols like the double-ax and fleur-de-lis visually communicated the monarch’s power. A complex bureaucracy managed state affairs, relying on taxation, record-keeping, and resource accumulation. The king maintained the supreme role of lawmaker and judge – a reputation so formidable that, in mythology, he is portrayed as the arbiter of souls in the afterlife.
While ‘Minos’ became synonymous with Cretan rulers, it’s likely more of a title than a personal name. At its zenith, this civilization was surprisingly urbanized. Accounts speak of Crete’s numerous cities, and surviving ruins reveal complex street layouts indicative of bustling, densely populated urban centers. Beyond Cnossus, places like Phaestus (a major port) and Hagia Triada (known for its grand villa) were prominent hubs. Meanwhile, towns such as Palaikastro and Gournia flourished as specialized centers of craftsmanship and industry.
Cretan dwellings, generally one-story, were built in proximity to create shaded courtyards. Some evidence points to the occasional existence of multi-story structures. Cretans enjoyed various leisure pursuits, from board games to hunting. Boxing matches were popular spectator events. But perhaps the most captivating spectacle was the iconic bull-leaping – a display of both courage and agility. This ancient and perilous sport reveals the fascinating, even contradictory, nature of early civilizations.
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Cretan Religion: A Blend of Reverence and Superstition
Cretan religion, though sometimes exhibiting a brutal edge, was characterized by profound devotion. This devotion manifested as a blend of fetishism, superstition, and genuine reverence. Cretans worshipped an array of natural wonders, including mountains, caves, the sun, the moon, and various animals like snakes and bulls. Their theology was all-encompassing.
The concept of spirits, both benevolent and malevolent, was central to Cretan belief. This likely influenced Greek mythology with figures like dryads and nymphs. The phallus was not directly worshipped, but the generative power of bulls and snakes held significant veneration.
With high mortality rates, Cretans held fertility in the highest esteem. A central figure in their pantheon was a Mother Goddess; ample and maternal, symbolic of nature’s triumph over death. Surrounded by symbolic animals and plants, she was the very source of life. Through her, we trace a lineage of powerful female deities like Isis, Ishtar, and Aphrodite.
Velchanos, the Cretan equivalent of Zeus, was initially subordinate to the Mother Goddess but grew in prominence over time. Associated with rain and moisture, he was seen as the embodiment of fertility. Belief in his death and resurrection was widespread, with rites honoring this cycle. The sacred bull sometimes represented him.
Cretan religious practice was elaborate, often led by female priests. Hymns, music, incense, and symbolic offerings aimed to appease deities. Ceremonies invoked natural processes like plant growth and honored the goddess in various forms. Symbols like the shield, cross, and the double-ax were revered, sometimes seemingly as much as the deities they represented.
Modest offerings characterized Cretan burial practices – food, figurines, and personal items for the afterlife. The belief was that a neglected spirit could return. Wealthier burials included precious belongings. There was a hope for an afterlife overseen by Rhadamanthus, where the worthy found peace.
Culture
A key challenge in understanding Cretan civilization is its language. After the Dorian invasion, the Cretans used the Greek alphabet to write a language distinct from what we know as Greek, bearing closer sound similarities to Egyptian, Cypriote, Hittite, and Anatolian dialects. Their earliest writing is hieroglyphic, then around 1800 B.C., they developed a linear script with ninety syllabic signs. Another script with Phoenician-like characters appeared centuries later, suggesting a possible Cretan influence on the Phoenician alphabet. Cretan writing was widespread, found even on the walls of Hagia Triada. The Phaestus disc, with its unique stamped hieroglyphs, hints at proto-printing, although the characters might be of foreign origin.
While we know the Cretan had some understanding of astronomy (crucial for navigation) and was renowned for medical knowledge, written records that might illuminate their scientific achievements have yet to be deciphered.
Theater, Music, and Art in Crete
The ruins of Cretan theaters give us more tangible insight. At Phaestus and Cnossus, stone-tiered theaters built around 2000 B.C. predate the Greek Theater of Dionysus by fifteen centuries. While the purpose of these performances is unknown, Cretan art depicts audiences watching spectacles, dances, and religious rituals. Music was also important, with the seven-stringed lyre and double flute featuring in Cretan art centuries before their association with Greece.
Cretan artistry shines in the less monumental: refined pottery, delicate gem cutting, detailed seals, and exquisite jewelry. Their bronzework combined intricate designs and inlays, while silver and rhyton craftsmanship was remarkably sophisticated.
It’s important to remember that much of our understanding of Crete is speculative. Their fascinating language remains a mystery, hindering our ability to fully know this rich and influential culture.
Cretan Pottery: From Mastery to Decline
Cretan potters were highly versatile, achieving excellence across many forms like vases, dishes, and figurines of animals and deities. Early Minoan potters relied on hand-shaping and simple glazes, allowing the fire to create unique color variations.
The Middle Minoan period saw a revolution with the introduction of the potter’s wheel. Potters created porcelain-like glazes in vibrant colors, sometimes producing incredibly thin-walled “eggshell” wares. This period (2100 to 1950 BC) represents Cretan pottery’s peak, with potters signing their work, their wares prized across the region.
Potters further developed their faience techniques in the Late Minoan Age, crafting vibrant faience plaques, vases, and naturalistic reliefs. Artists embraced nature, depicting lively animals, colorful fish, and delicate plants on their vessels. Iconic works like the Boxers’ Vase and the Harvesters’ Vase come from this period.
However, over time, the great tradition weakened. Decoration became excessive and less carefully considered, finesse replaced by a less refined style. While understandable in an aging art form, it marked the decline of Cretan pottery before its eventual revival centuries later in the perfection of Attic vases.
Cretan Sculpture, Painting, and Architecture
Sculpture remained a secondary art form in Crete, largely focused on statuettes with some notable exceptions in bas-relief. While many figurines appear formulaic, others offer surprising detail and lively action. The Snake Goddess, a striking ivory and gold figure, stands out as a rare successful treatment of the larger human form. Larger-scale sculptures tended towards animal forms with painted reliefs, like the powerful bull’s head, demonstrating a mastery of expression rarely matched even in later Greek art.
While Crete’s sculpture is unremarkable and its architecture lies in ruins, its ancient paintings offer a captivating glimpse into the past. Unlike the lost artworks of classic Greece, many Cretan frescoes survived the ravages of time, showcasing an artistic sophistication that predates classical Greece by centuries.
With vibrant colors and vivid scenes, these frescoes capture the Minoan civilization’s deep connection to nature. Works like the “Saffron Picker” and the “Cat Stalking a Bird” reveal a remarkable attention to detail and love of natural forms. Though stylized, their figures display energy and graceful movement that feels remarkably fresh.
The palaces of Crete were centers of artistic excellence as well as political and economic power. Built and rebuilt over centuries, these massive complexes exemplified the skill of Minoan architects and artisans. Though primarily constructed with limestone and wood due to the island’s resource limitations, their clever engineering stands as a testament to their ingenuity.
The famed palace at Knossos, likely the inspiration for the Greek myth of the Labyrinth, sprawled across multiple levels with a complex network of rooms and chambers. Perhaps most remarkable was its advanced drainage system, rivaling the sophistication of much later civilizations.
The palace interiors were richly decorated with intricate murals, elegant vases, and sculptures. Frescoes depicting lilies, graceful figures, and scenes of bull-leaping adorned the walls, showcasing the Minoan artist’s command of color and form. The iconic “Cupbearer” fresco, with its portrayal of an aristocratic youth, highlights the refinement and extravagance of Minoan society.
