The priesthood in ancient Egypt, dedicated to deities like Anubis and Ra, was founded during the Early Dynastic Period (around 3150 to 2613 BCE) and evolved significantly in the Old Kingdom (circa 2613 to 2181 BCE). This era saw priests gaining substantial wealth, influence, and political leverage, effectively balancing the power of the pharaohs. However, by the 4th century, their influence waned and eventually vanished, largely due to corruption within their ranks and the spread of Christianity.
Role of a Priest in Egyptian Faith
In ancient Egypt, the primary responsibility of a priest was singular and sacred: to care for the deity enshrined in their temple. This role was distinct from priests in other religions, as Egyptian priests did not engage in preaching, converting non-believers, or performing public religious functions beyond temple rituals.
Both men and women were eligible to become priests, undertaking identical responsibilities and earning equal pay. Typically, women were dedicated to female deities, and men to male gods, with notable exceptions in the worship of Serket and Amun, where both genders served. Doctors often worshipped Serket, and women priests of Amun could attain the influential role of the Wife of Amun, a position that could rival even the king’s authority.
The appointment of the high priest was the prerogative of the pharaoh. This priest conducted crucial rituals, acted as the chief intermediary between the divine and the people, and oversaw temple operations, merging political and spiritual leadership.
Central to Egyptian religious life was the principle of Ma’at, representing harmony and balance, upheld through Heka, or magical practices. Heka, and its divine embodiment, was believed to predate all creation, including the gods themselves. Each member of Egyptian society was duty-bound to uphold Ma’at, with priests playing a crucial role by diligently serving the gods daily, maintaining the cosmic balance.
Varieties of Egyptian Priests
In ancient Egyptian religion, the priesthood was structured with clear roles and titles differentiated by gender: male priests were called “hem-netjer” and female priests “hemet-netjer,” both terms meaning “servant of the god.” The hierarchy within the priesthood spanned from the entry-level “wab,” who performed auxiliary duties such as temple maintenance and festival preparations, to the high priest, known as “hem-netjer-tep,” who held the highest religious authority within the temple complex.
The spectrum of roles within the temple was broad, encompassing not just those directly involved in rituals, but also individuals working in various capacities like kitchen staff, janitors, porters, and scribes, all considered priests due to their service to the deity. Musicians and singers, too, were trained by priests to ensure their performances were suitable for divine audiences. “Hour-priests” specialized in astronomy, maintaining the calendar, interpreting omens, and delineating auspicious and inauspicious days.
In the medical domain, priests known as “swnw” (general practitioners) and “sau” (magicians specializing in medical practices) combined traditional medicine with magical practices. “Ka-priests” were paid by families to make daily offerings at the tombs of ancestors, ensuring their well-being in the afterlife. “Sem priests” played crucial roles in mortuary rituals, including mummification and reciting spells to secure eternal life for the deceased.
Just below the high priest in rank was the “lector priest” (“hery-heb” or “cheriheb”), responsible for documenting religious texts, educating clergy, and performing the sacred “heka” or magical recitations during temple ceremonies and festivals. While the role of lector priest traditionally passed from father to son, limiting records of female lector priests, there is indirect evidence suggesting their existence and contributions to the religious life of ancient Egypt.
Dawn Rituals and Reviving the Deity
Ancient Egyptian priests embarked on their day similarly to others, with the routine of waking and dressing. Yet, their dedication to ritual purity set them apart, guided by stringent practices. Firstly, maintaining bodily purity involved the complete removal of body hair, including eyebrows and eyelashes, with a thorough hair removal process every third day to ensure smooth skin.
Secondly, multiple daily baths in the temple’s sacred lake were mandatory for achieving the highest standards of cleanliness and spiritual purity. Additionally, the use of a natron salt solution for gargling was essential before donning their attire, which consisted exclusively of white linen garments and reed sandals, symbolizing purity. These preparatory acts were completed before dawn, in anticipation of the day’s first spiritual duty.
This ritual, the Fire Ritual, convened priests in a sanctified area near the shrine of Ra, simulating the original sunrise through the ignition of a fire in a brazier. With the daybreak, a priest would perform a morning hymn, “Awaken in Peace, Great God,” to rouse the deity Ra. Following this, the Drawing the Bolt ritual saw a senior priest approach the heart of the temple, unlock the sanctuary doors, and conduct a prayer four times beside Ra’s image, signifying a sacrificial exchange of his soul to rejuvenate the god in a tangible form. This series of rituals preceded their breakfast.
Post-breakfast activities involved sprinkling water across the sanctuary and Ra’s effigy, concluding with a prayer and the resealing of the sanctuary doors. At midday, the high priest would re-enter the shrine to burn myrrh resin and sprinkle water, a continuation of the day’s purification efforts for the temple’s sacred areas. These practices underscore the profound spiritual dedication and meticulous purity rituals that characterized the daily life of ancient Egyptian priests.
Afternoon Activities
In the afternoons, ancient Egyptian priests would gather for a communal meal, typically featuring pea and lentil soup paired with fresh bread, marking a moment of shared nourishment and fellowship. Post-lunch afforded them some discretionary time to unwind, engage in personal reflection, take naps, meditate, or partake in leisure activities such as playing board games.
One of the era’s most celebrated games was Senet, the specifics of which remain largely speculative, despite efforts by historians like Timothy Kendall and R.C. Bell to reconstruct the rules from textual remnants spanning over a millennium. Another popular game, Hounds and Jackals, required two participants and involved a board with 29 holes for each player, distinguished by ten pegs shaped like jackal or dog heads. Players aimed to navigate their pieces from one board point to another, with a particularly large hole likely signifying the game’s goal.
After this period of leisure, priests resumed their sacred duties, often participating in funeral processions for distinguished individuals. A priest would guide the funeral march, accompany the coffin across the Nile on a barge, and deliver final prayers at the tomb before masons sealed the coffin, encapsulating the priest’s role in both the spiritual and practical aspects of death rites, including mummification.
Beyond these duties, temples served as centers for communal assistance, addressing medical, financial, and emotional needs, and offering protection against supernatural threats. People frequently brought offerings in thanks for answered prayers. However, the primary interaction between Egyptians and their deities was personal or during numerous festivals, reflecting the belief system where priests acted as intermediaries serving the gods, rather than directly serving the populace.
Evening Practices in Egyptian Faith
As the day transitioned into evening, ancient Egyptian priests adhered to their rigorous standards of ritual purity by taking another bath before re-engaging with the divine. This practice was part of their strict regimen, which mandated bathing twice during the day and twice at night, culminating in a fourth and final purification bath to reaffirm their sanctity for the evening rituals.
Simultaneously, the hour-priests, who were also skilled astronomers, would take their position in a designated area within the temple grounds to observe the night sky. Their observations were crucial for maintaining the calendar and determining auspicious times for rituals and ceremonies.
In a ceremonial counterpart to the morning’s activities, the high priest would then proceed to the temple’s innermost sanctuary to conduct the evening rituals aimed at putting the deity’s spirit to rest. This included burning kyphi, a spicy incense known for its soothing properties, to facilitate a tranquil atmosphere conducive to the divine rest.
The day’s structured spiritual activities would conclude with the priests having their evening meal, followed by retiring to bed early. This routine ensured they were well-rested and prepared for the next day’s duties, perpetuating a cycle of devotion and service to the gods that defined their lives. Through such meticulous daily practices, the priests embodied and maintained the ancient Egyptian values of purity, order, and harmony between the divine and the earthly realms.
