Art is a crucial element of any society, emerging once basic needs like food, shelter, laws, and religion are established. In Egypt’s Predynastic Period (c. 6000 – c. 3150 BCE), artwork depicting animals, humans, and supernatural beings on rock walls began to appear. Though primitive compared to later art, these images still conveyed the important value of balance in Egyptian culture.
Egyptian society revolved around maat, the concept of harmony that originated at creation and maintained the universe. Egyptian art reflects this perfect balance, mirroring the ideal world of the gods. Art was always functional in Egyptian culture, serving a purpose such as housing a spirit or god. Whether a statue or amulet, the primary goal was utility rather than aesthetic beauty. Tomb paintings, temple decorations, and gardens were all designed with specific functions, often serving as reminders of life’s eternal nature and the importance of stability.
Early Dynasty Period
During the Early Dynastic Period, Egyptian art continued to evolve.
The concept of balance, shown as symmetry, was a key element in Egyptian art from early times. This value is evident in rock art from the Predynastic Period and fully developed during the Early Dynastic Period of Egypt (circa 3150 – 2613 BCE). The pinnacle of art from this period is seen in The Narmer Palette (circa 3200-3000 BCE), which commemorates the unification of Upper and Lower Egypt under King Narmer (circa 3150 BCE).
The Narmer Palette, made of siltstone in a chevron shield shape, depicts the king’s victory over his enemies and the gods’ support of his actions through engravings. While some images on the palette are open to interpretation, the overall message of unity and celebration of the king is clear.
On the front of the palette, Narmer is depicted with the strength of a bull, possibly the Apis Bull, wearing the crowns of Upper and Lower Egypt in a triumphant procession. Below him, two men are shown wrestling with intertwined beasts, often thought to symbolize Upper and Lower Egypt, though this interpretation is debated. The reverse side illustrates the king’s triumph over his enemies with the gods looking on approvingly. These scenes are skillfully carved in low-raised relief.
During the end of the Early Dynastic Period, architect Imhotep effectively used a technique in designing King Djoser’s pyramid complex around 2667-2600 BCE. The buildings were intricately decorated with images of lotus flowers, papyrus plants, and the djed symbol in both high and low relief. Sculptors at this time also mastered creating lifelike statues in stone, with Djoser’s statue being one of the greatest works of art from that era.
The Old Kingdom
In the Old Kingdom of Egypt around 2613-2181 BCE, advancements in art flourished due to a strong central government and economic prosperity. Monumental works like the Great Pyramid of Giza, the Sphinx, and elaborate tomb and temple paintings were created. The obelisk, first seen in the Early Dynastic Period, became more refined during the Old Kingdom. While tomb paintings became more sophisticated, statues remained relatively static. Artworks like the statue of Djoser from Saqqara and an ivory statue of King Khufu found at Giza showcase exceptional execution and detail.
Art during the Old Kingdom was typically commissioned by the king or high-ranking nobility, who also dictated the style of the piece. This led to uniformity in artwork, as artists had to adhere to their clients’ wishes. However, this changed when the Old Kingdom fell, marking the beginning of the First Intermediate Period around 2181-2040 BCE.
The First Intermediate Period
The First Intermediate Period has often been described as a period of disorder and obscurity, with artwork from this time used to support such claims. The argument is based on the belief that the quality of art during this period was poor, and the absence of large building projects indicates a decline in Egyptian culture towards chaos and disintegration.
However, the reality is that the First Intermediate Period of Egypt was a time of significant growth and cultural transformation. The quality of artwork during this period was influenced by the lack of a strong central government and the absence of state-mandated art. Different regions were able to express their own artistic visions freely, resulting in artwork that may be different from that of the Old Kingdom but not necessarily of lower quality.
The lack of monumental building projects can also be explained by the fact that the previous dynasties had depleted the government treasury with their grand monuments. By the time of the 5th Dynasty, there were no resources left for such projects. While the collapse of the Old Kingdom after the 6th Dynasty was indeed a tumultuous time, there is no evidence to suggest that the era that followed was a dark age.
During the First Intermediate Period, there was a mix of high-quality artwork and mass-produced items. Instead of being crafted by individual artists, items like amulets, coffins, ceramics, and shabti dolls were now made by production teams. Shabti dolls, which were buried with the deceased to help with tasks in the afterlife, were particularly significant. In this period, they were mainly made of wood and produced in large quantities to be sold at lower prices. This made shabti dolls more accessible to people of modest means, whereas previously only the wealthy could afford them. The dolls were believed to come to life in the next world and take on the responsibilities of the soul, allowing it to rest in the afterlife.
Art of Egypt in The Middle Kingdom
The First Intermediate Period came to an end when Mentuhotep II, around 2061-2010 BCE, from Thebes defeated the rulers of Herakleopolis and established the Middle Kingdom of Egypt from 2040-1782 BCE. The capital shifted to Thebes, where a strong central government regained the authority to influence artistic trends.
During the Middle Kingdom, rulers allowed for diverse artistic styles from different regions, rather than imposing a single noble taste. While there was respect for Old Kingdom art, Middle Kingdom art stood out for its unique themes and advanced techniques.
Considered the peak of Egyptian culture, the Middle Kingdom saw remarkable artistic achievements. Mentuhotep II’s tomb, carved into the cliffs near Thebes, seamlessly blended with the natural surroundings. Paintings, frescoes, and statues in the tomb displayed a high level of sophistication and symmetry. Jewelry craftsmanship also flourished, producing some of Egypt’s finest pieces, like a pendant from Senusret II’s reign (1897-1878 BCE) adorned with semiprecious stones.
The statues and busts of kings and queens during this period were intricately carved with precision and beauty surpassing that of the Old Kingdom artwork.
The most notable aspect of Middle Kingdom art is the focus on common people rather than nobility. Art from this period highlights laborers, farmers, dancers, singers, and domestic life as much as kings, nobles, and gods. While traditional views of the afterlife are depicted in tomb artwork, literature from that time questions these beliefs and suggests focusing on the present life.
Art during the Middle Kingdom portrays kings like Senusret III more realistically, showing them as they truly were instead of idealized figures. Senusret III is depicted in various works at different ages, reflecting different emotions and experiences. This shift towards realism is evident in the uniformity and detail of these representations. Egyptian art is known for its lack of emotional expression, as the Egyptians believed that one’s eternal image should reflect their entire existence rather than just a fleeting moment in time.
Middle Kingdom art focuses on the present life rather than the afterlife, emphasizing simple pleasures like eating and drinking. The details in these scenes highlight the joys of earthly existence. Dog collars also became more elaborate during this time, indicating a focus on leisure activities and ornamentation.
The Middle Kingdom declined during the 13th Dynasty due to rulers becoming complacent and neglecting state affairs. The Nubians advanced from the south, while the Hyksos established themselves in the Delta region in the north. The government in Thebes lost control over parts of the Delta to the Hyksos and could not stop the Nubian expansion, leading to the Second Intermediate Period (c. 1782 – c. 1570 BCE). Artwork continued to be commissioned in Thebes, albeit on a smaller scale, while the Hyksos either used existing works for their temples or commissioned new grander pieces.
The Second Intermediate and New Kingdom
The art of the Second Intermediate Period in Egypt followed the traditions of the Middle Kingdom but with less effectiveness. The top artists worked for the nobility in Thebes, producing high-quality pieces, while non-royal artists were not as skilled. Despite being seen as disorganized and chaotic, there were still many fine works created during this time, just on a smaller scale.
During this period, tomb paintings, statues, temple reliefs, pectorals, headdresses, and jewelry of excellent quality continued to be made. The Hyksos, often criticized by later Egyptian writers, actually contributed to cultural development by copying and preserving written works from earlier history, as well as replicating statues and other artworks.
The Hyksos were eventually expelled by Theban prince Ahmose I around 1570-1544 BCE, marking the start of the New Kingdom of Egypt (c. 1570 – c. 1069 BCE). This era is the most renowned in Egyptian history, featuring well-known rulers and iconic artwork. Colossal statues, like those from the Middle Kingdom, became more prevalent, the Karnak temple expanded with its grand Hypostyle Hall, the Book of the Dead was copied with illustrations for a wider audience, and funerary objects such as shabti dolls improved in quality.
During the New Kingdom in Egypt, the empire expanded and Egyptian artists were exposed to new styles and techniques, enhancing their skills. The metalwork of the Hittites influenced Egyptian art, especially in weaponry. The wealth of the country was evident in the size and quality of artworks.
Pharaoh Amenhotep III, who reigned from 1386-1353 BCE, built numerous monuments and temples, including the Colossi of Memnon, massive statues that stood at the entrance of his mortuary temple. His son, Amenhotep IV or Akhenaten (1353-1336 BCE), changed his name after embracing the god Aten and abandoning traditional religious practices during the Amarna Period.
Art during this time returned to realism seen in the Middle Kingdom, departing from the idealism of the early New Kingdom. Queen Hatshepsut (1479-1458 BCE) is depicted realistically, but most noble portraits reflect Old Kingdom ideals with heart-shaped faces and smiles. The art from the Amarna period is so lifelike that scholars can infer possible physical ailments of the individuals depicted.
During this period, two well-known Egyptian artworks emerged: the bust of Nefertiti and the golden death mask of Tutankhamun. Nefertiti, who lived around 1370-1336 BCE, was the wife of Akhenaten. Her bust, unearthed in 1912 at Amarna by German archaeologist Borchardt, is now an iconic symbol of Egypt. Tutankhamun, Akhenaten’s son, ruled around 1336-1327 BCE and is famous for his tomb discovered in 1922, filled with numerous artifacts.
The golden mask and metal objects found in Tutankhamun’s tomb showcased advancements in metalwork influenced by the Hittites. The Egyptian Empire’s artistry flourished due to their eagerness to adopt new techniques and styles from other cultures. Before the Hyksos invasion, Egyptians viewed foreign nations as inferior. However, the invasion compelled Egypt to acknowledge external contributions and incorporate them into their own practices.
Later Period and Legacy
The skills developed during the Third Intermediate Period of Egypt (c. 1069-525 BCE) and Late Period (525-332 BCE) were not as grand as earlier eras due to a weaker central government. Despite limited resources, the art from these periods maintained a high level of quality. Egyptologist David P. Silverman observed that the art from this time reflects a balance between tradition and innovation.
During the Late Period, Kushite rulers revived Old Kingdom art to connect with Egypt’s ancient traditions, while native Egyptian rulers and nobility aimed to progress artistic representation from the New Kingdom.
This pattern continued with Persian influence after their invasion in 525 BCE. The Persians respected Egyptian culture and history, associating themselves with Old Kingdom art and architecture.
In the Ptolemaic Period (323-30 BCE), Egyptian and Greek art merged to create statues like Serapis, a deity combining Greek and Egyptian elements. Roman art in Egypt (30 BCE – 646 CE) followed a similar approach, blending Egyptian themes and techniques with Roman interpretations of Egyptian gods. Roman-era tomb paintings, though distinctly Roman, still adhered to principles established in the Old Kingdom.
The art from later cultures had a significant influence on European art for over 1,000 years until the late 19th century. Artists like the Futurists in Italy started to break away from traditional styles. Modern Art in the early 20th century aimed to challenge audiences by presenting traditional subjects in new ways. Artists such as Picasso and Duchamp wanted to make people rethink their ideas about art and life by creating innovative compositions that departed from past styles and techniques. Their groundbreaking works were made possible due to the foundation laid by ancient Egyptian art.
