On April 2, 1453, Constantine XI, the last Roman Emperor (Byzantine), stood on the walls of Constantinople, watching as Mehmed II’s massive Ottoman army approached. The Ottomans were no joke; Mehmed had gathered between 60,000 and 80,000 troops along with a fleet of 320 ships.
Keep reading to learn more about how Constantinople fell!
Mehmed II Conquering Constantinople
Constantinople had seen its fair share of sieges over the years. Throughout its long history, the city faced attacks from various groups like the Goths, Sassanids, Avars, Arabs, Bulgars, Russians, Crusaders, and even some rebel Byzantine forces. Most of these attempts didn’t stand a chance against the city’s impressive defenses, which included ditches, moats, towers, gates, and an extensive 20-kilometer (12-mile) wall system. Plus, this wasn’t even the first time the Ottomans tried to take Constantinople; they made several unsuccessful attempts in 1391, 1394-1402, 1411, and again in 1452.
The Ottoman Army and Mehmeds Monster
Mehmed II’s army was a game changer compared to previous ones; it came equipped with 69 cannons. The biggest of the bunch was a massive piece called the Basilic, so huge that it needed 90 oxen and 400 men just to move it. This beast was specifically designed to smash the walls of Constantinople into rubble. It measured 7.3 meters (24 feet) long, weighed over 18,000 kilograms (20 tons), and could launch a cannonball weighing 550 kg (0.6 tons) over a distance of 1.6 kilometers (about a mile). Gunpowder warfare had officially kicked off.
This gigantic cannon was made by Orbán (or Urban), a Hungarian engineer and gunsmith who initially pitched his skills to the Byzantines. When Emperor Constantine XI couldn’t pay him, Orbán switched gears and offered his expertise to Mehmed. When asked if his cannons could breach Constantinople’s walls, he confidently replied that he could create a bronze cannon powerful enough to shatter not just those walls but even the legendary walls of Babylon.
The Fading Light of Rome
The Byzantine Empire, which used to be the powerhouse of the Middle Ages and a stronghold for Christianity against Islam, had really lost its edge. Years of fighting off waves of enemies, endless civil wars, rampant corruption, political squabbles, and a string of clueless emperors had seriously weakened it.
Even though its defenses were still some of the best in medieval times, Constantinople—the capital that was once the pride of the Mediterranean—was struggling. Back in the 12th century, the city had around 400,000 residents, but now it was down to less than 50,000. Where there used to be bustling markets and lively neighborhoods, there were now just empty fields inside the walls.
With money problems and a shrinking population, Constantinople didn’t have enough people to fend off the Ottomans. An eyewitness named Giacomo Tedaldi noted that while there were about 30,000 to 35,000 civilians forced into military service, only 6,000 to 7,000 were actual soldiers.
Archbishop Leonard of Chios pointed out that there weren’t enough skilled archers or crossbowmen to cover all the walls. The defenders had a handful of cannons—around 15—but most were only good for taking out troops rather than enemy artillery. One of the bigger cannons that could actually target the enemy’s weapons performed well initially but ended up bursting early in the siege.
The Beginning of the End
By April 5, the Ottoman troops had completely surrounded the city walls, while their navy blocked off the Bosporus, making it impossible for anyone to get in or out of Constantinople. Unlike previous sieges, there was no way for supplies to flow into the harbor or for residents to escape.
With the city cut off, Mehmed sent a messenger to demand that Constantinople surrender immediately and without conditions. When he got no reply, the next day, April 6, they started bombarding the city with the Basilic and other cannons.
The cannons kept blasting until the following day when part of the wall finally gave way. The Ottomans tried to launch their first attack on the walls, but the defenders pushed them back easily, and they quickly fixed the breach overnight using dirt, bricks, stones, and other debris. There was a brief pause as the Ottomans moved some of their cannons around, but by April 11, the heavy bombardment kicked off again.
Big, Slow, and Hot
One of the big guns was Orbán’s massive Basilic. This cannon was so huge and heavy that it took ages to load and fire. It came in two pieces, which meant you had to take it apart to reload it. You’d stuff a ton of gunpowder in the back and then shove a half-ton granite ball in the front before screwing it back together.
It was set up on a platform made mostly of mud, with wooden logs propped up next to it for stability. Once the fuse was lit, it created a thunderous boom that sent a giant cannonball crashing into the walls of Constantinople. Not only did it wreak havoc on the fortifications, but it also crushed the spirits of the defenders. The recoil was so strong that it even injured some of the crew operating it.
After firing, the heat from the cannon was intense enough to overheat it, so they had to slather it with warm olive oil to stop the cold air from cracking the barrel. They had to wait for it to cool down before going through the long process of reloading again. It was such a slow ordeal that the cannon could only manage about three to seven shots a day, giving the defenders time to make important repairs between blasts. In contrast, the smaller cannons could fire around 100 times a day, steadily wearing down Constantinople’s defenses.
A Call to the West
Even though they were outnumbered and outgunned, the defenders fought like crazy. They managed to fend off multiple attacks on the walls, used their stone throwers and a few cannons to slow down the enemy, and even launched some counterattacks against the Ottoman siege equipment. At night, teams worked hard to fix the damaged walls. But despite their bravery, it was clear that without outside help, Constantinople was just hanging on by a thread.
Before the siege started, Constantine had reached out for help from Christian leaders in the West. Unfortunately, his appeals to the Pope didn’t go anywhere because he didn’t realize how much sway the Pope had over those Western nations. Plus, France and England were caught up in the Hundred Years War, Spain was busy with the Reconquista, and the Holy Roman Empire was a mess politically. Hungary and Poland were still trying to bounce back from their defeat at Varna in 1444, and Venice’s promises of support turned out to be empty.
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The Battle for the Golden Horn
On April 12, Mehmed sent parts of his army to take over the Byzantine forts at Studios and Therapia, tightening the grip on Constantinople. Meanwhile, the Ottoman navy tried to attack the harbor, but the big chain blocking the Golden Horn was too tough for them, and they got pushed back twice by the smaller Christian fleet.
Then on April 17, Mehmed launched a bold night assault on the city walls, but after a fierce four-hour fight, the Ottomans were pushed back again. At the same time, the Ottoman navy was dispatched to seize the nearby Princes Islands. But on April 20, three Genoese ships, sent by the Pope and loaded with supplies, along with a big Byzantine ship full of wheat, managed to sneak through the Ottoman blockade.
Mehmed was furious about his admiral’s failure, so he stripped him of his rank and property and had him publicly whipped. This was a huge blow to the besiegers and gave a serious morale boost to those inside the city, prompting Mehmed to talk with his advisors about possibly lifting the siege.
The Beginning of the End
By April 5, the Ottoman troops had completely surrounded the city walls, and their navy had blocked off the Bosporus, making it impossible for anyone to get help or escape from Constantinople. Unlike previous sieges, there was no way for supplies to come in or out of the harbor.
With the city cut off, Mehmed sent a messenger to demand that Constantinople surrender immediately and without conditions. But they got no reply, so on April 6, the bombardment began with the Basilic and other cannons firing at the city.
The cannon fire continued until the next day when part of the wall finally gave way. The Ottomans tried to storm the walls, but the defenders pushed them back easily, and they quickly repaired the breach using dirt, bricks, stones, and debris. There was a brief pause while the Ottomans moved some of their cannons around, but by April 11, the relentless bombardment started up again.
Big, Slow, and Hot
One of the big guns was Orbán’s giant cannon, the Basilic. This thing was so massive and heavy that it took forever to load and fire. It came in two pieces and had to be taken apart to reload. A ton of gunpowder went into the back, and then they’d shove a half-ton granite ball into the front before putting it all back together.
They set it up on a platform made mostly of mud, propping it up with wooden logs for stability. Once everything was ready, they lit the fuse, and the blast that followed was deafening as it launched a huge cannonball at the city walls. Not only did it wreak havoc on the fortifications, but it also crushed the spirits of those defending the city. The recoil was so powerful that it even injured some of the crew operating it!After the cannon was fired, it got super hot and overheated, so they had to slather it in warm olive oil to stop the cold air from cracking the barrel. They needed to let it cool down before they could start the long process of reloading again. This whole routine was so slow that the cannon could only manage to fire about three to seven times a day, which gave the defenders some time to make important repairs to the walls in between shots. On the flip side, the smaller cannons were way more efficient, firing around 100 times a day and gradually wearing down Constantinople’s defenses.
A Call to the West
Even though they were outnumbered and outgunned, the defenders fought hard. They managed to fend off several attacks on the walls, used their stone throwers and a few cannons to hinder the enemy, and even launched some counterattacks against the Ottoman siege works. At night, teams worked on fixing the damaged walls. Despite their brave efforts, it was clear that without help from outside, Constantinople was running out of time.
Before the siege started, Constantine reached out for help from Christian leaders in the West. Unfortunately, his pleas to the Pope didn’t go anywhere because he underestimated how much influence the Pope had over Western powers. Plus, France and England were caught up in the Hundred Years War, Spain was busy with the Reconquista, and the Holy Roman Empire was dealing with its own political mess. Hungary and Poland were still recovering from their loss at Varna in 1444, and Venice’s promises of support turned out to be empty.
The Battle for the Golden Horn
On April 12, Mehmed sent parts of his army to take over the Byzantine fortresses at Studios and Therapia, tightening the grip around Constantinople. Meanwhile, the Ottoman fleet tried to attack the harbor, but the big chain blocking the entrance to the Golden Horn held strong, and the smaller Christian fleet pushed them back twice.On April 17, Mehmed launched a bold nighttime assault on the city walls, but after a grueling four-hour fight, the Ottomans were pushed back once again. Meanwhile, he sent his navy to take over the nearby Princes Islands. However, on April 20, three Genoese ships filled with supplies, sent by the Pope, along with a big Byzantine ship carrying wheat, managed to sneak past the Ottoman blockade.
Mehmed was furious about his admiral’s failure and had him stripped of his rank, lost his property, and publicly whipped. This setback hit the besiegers hard while boosting the morale of those inside the city. So, Mehmed talked it over with his advisors and seriously thought about lifting the siege.
But in the end, Mehmed decided to keep going with the siege. He was more determined than ever to capture the Golden Horn. He took some cannons off his ships and set them up on the shore to bombard the defenders of the Great Chain boom.
To get around the Great Chain, Mehmed built a slipway using greased logs across Galata and moved around 70 smaller ships overland. On April 22, he relaunched these ships into the Golden Horn. Even though the Bosporus was blocked from outside help, the small Genoese colony of Pera was still able to supply Constantinople. With Turkish ships now inside the Golden Horn, the city was completely cut off.
Six days later, the Christians tried to destroy the Ottoman vessels in the Golden Horn using fire ships, but the Ottomans fought them off, causing heavy losses. Some sailors were captured and impaled on Mehmed’s orders right in front of the defenders. In retaliation, the Byzantines executed 260 Turkish prisoners on the city walls.
Not only was the city running low on supplies, but the defenders also had to split their forces to guard the sea wall along the Golden Horn.
*The Beginning of the End**In the weeks that followed, the Ottomans tried multiple times to charge through the gaps their cannons, including the powerful *Basilic, had created in the walls, but each attempt was pushed back. After six weeks of bombardment, that big cannon finally gave out due to its poor design and blew itself up.
They also made a few more naval strikes against the Great Chain, but those were turned away too. The Ottomans attempted to dig under the walls, but the Byzantines had some solid counter-strategies in place, like flooding the tunnels, digging their own countermines, using Greek Fire to smoke out the miners, and engaging in intense close-quarters fighting in the cramped tunnels.
On May 21, Mehmed sent one last message to Constantine XI, offering safe passage for him and his people to Morea, where he’d recognize Constantine as the governor of the Peloponnese. Those who stayed behind would be promised safety. But the offer was turned down. If Mehmed wanted the city, he’d have to take it by force.
The sultan then called for another war council. With rumors swirling about Western powers possibly coming to help the city, some advisors suggested lifting the siege. Others argued that Constantinople’s defenses were so weakened that it was only a matter of time before it fell. In the end, Mehmed decided to go all in with one final massive assault on the city walls.
The Fall of an Emperor, a City, and an Empire
On May 29, right after midnight, Mehmed kicked off the final attack on Constantinople’s defenses. The city was hit from both land and sea, stretching the defenders pretty thin as they had to cover both fronts.
The ground assault started with a cannon fire that lit up the night sky. The first wave came from the sultan’s Christian recruits, followed by several groups of irregulars while the navy tried to scale the seawalls using ladders. These attacks were intense and took a toll on both sides, only stopping when Mehmed told his troops to pull back just before dawn.
After another round of artillery fire, Mehmed ordered one last push against the walls, this time led by his top-notch Janissaries and palace troops. What followed was the epic battle for Constantinople itself.
Unfortunately, the few defenders left, which included many women and kids, fought valiantly but couldn’t hold off the massive enemy forces. The walls were breached, and the attackers flooded into the city. There’s a legend that Emperor Constantine XI tossed aside his royal gear and bravely charged at the Turkish forces. His body was never found.
Legacy of the Fall
The fall of Constantinople had huge and lasting effects. First off, it marked the end of the Byzantine Empire, which had been around for over a thousand years and was a key player in preserving Christianity and Classical culture. With the fall of Byzantium, the Eastern Roman Empire officially disappeared.
As a result, a lot of scholars and artists packed up and headed to the West, bringing along their ideas, philosophies, and tons of manuscripts filled with Classical knowledge. This influx really shaped Western thought and traditions, setting the stage for the Italian Renaissance.
Economically, it shook things up too. The collapse of the empire changed trade routes since Constantinople was a major hub, especially for the Silk Road. After the city fell, Western powers started looking for new ways to reach the East, which kicked off the Age of Exploration and led to the discovery of the New World.
Plus, the fall of Constantinople signaled the rise of the Ottoman Empire, which became a big threat to Christian Europe.
