From Beer Hall Putsch to Führer: Hitler’s Rise

The ascent of Adolf Hitler (1889-1945), who became the Nazi leader of Germany in 1933, was largely facilitated by those already in positions of power who sought to capitalize on his growing popularity. Hitler made bold promises to restore Germany’s greatness after the shame of World War I, vowing to reclaim lost territories, revive traditional German values, ensure full employment, and eliminate perceived ‘enemies’ such as Communists and Jewish individuals.

Hitler’s journey to power was surprisingly lengthy, marked by numerous steps and notable setbacks, including his imprisonment after the failed coup known as the Beer Hall Putsch in November 1923. His rise spanned nearly a decade, with the Nazi Party initially securing only 12 seats in the 1928 elections for the German Reichstag (Parliament), out of a total of 491. This number grew to 107 in 1930, then 230 in July 1932, 196 in November 1932, and finally 288 seats in 1933. Once he became chancellor in 1933, Hitler swiftly eliminated all opposition and established a totalitarian regime, positioning himself as the unquestioned dictator, or Führer, of Germany.

Several factors contributed to Adolf Hitler and the Nazi Party’s rise to power:

• Many Germans were angered by the harsh conditions of the Treaty of Versailles, particularly the clause that assigned blame for WWI. Traditional political parties suffered from their association with the treaty, while Hitler promised to overturn it and restore national pride.
• The repercussions of the Great Depression led to widespread unemployment and hyperinflation, prompting voters to seek more radical political solutions.
• The ongoing weakness and incompetence of various coalition governments during the Weimar Republic further fueled discontent.
• Hitler pledged to create jobs through initiatives like road construction and military rearmament.
• In exchange for their support, he offered business leaders lucrative government contracts, especially in arms manufacturing, which also appealed to the German military.
• He tapped into traditional German ideals, emphasizing national greatness, strong family values, and a vision of a classless society.
• Hitler advocated for expanding Germany to acquire new territories and Lebensraum (‘living space’) for the prosperity of the German people.
• Through propaganda, he identified so-called common enemies of the state, such as outsiders and Jewish people, whom he blamed for holding Germany back.
• A cult of personality around Hitler emerged, portraying him as the savior of the nation.

The establishment believed that by bringing Hitler into power, they could manage the Nazi movement more effectively and take advantage of its popularity for their own gain.

After becoming chancellor, Hitler quickly moved to eliminate his competitors. He made sure that the German parliament had very little influence and started to build a dictatorship where he was the unquestioned leader of a one-party police state.

Historians still discuss how much each of these factors contributed to Hitler’s ascent to power.

The Treaty of Versailles

The First World War, which lasted from 1914 to 1918, officially came to an end with the Treaty of Versailles. This treaty outlined the conditions for Germany’s surrender, resulting in the country losing a large portion of its land, being required to pay reparations, and accepting full blame for initiating the war. In 1919, many Germans expressed their dissatisfaction with these terms, leading to the politicians who agreed to them being labeled as ‘the criminals of 1919.’ This anger was intensified by the belief that the German military leadership had betrayed the nation during the war, creating a narrative that if not for this betrayal, victory could have been possible. As a result, there was a general distrust towards the political and military leaders of the newly formed Weimar Republic, which existed from 1918 to 1933.

In the aftermath of the Treaty of Versailles, the fascist National Socialist German Workers’ Party (commonly known as the Nazi Party) was established in 1920. Despite its name, the party had little interest in socialism or workers’ rights; Adolf Hitler chose the title to attract a broad audience. He skillfully tapped into the anti-establishment sentiment, positioning the Nazis as outsiders. By 1925, in his book Mein Kampf, Hitler vowed to overturn the Treaty of Versailles and establish a new ‘Greater Germany.’

The Great Depression

In 1923, Germany experienced hyperinflation, which rendered people’s savings nearly worthless. This was a tough lesson for many in the German middle class, and they held a grudge against the Weimar politicians for it. Unfortunately, things were about to get worse. The Great Depression began after the Wall Street stock market crash in 1929, leading to economic turmoil across many countries throughout the 1930s. World trade plummeted, industrial production dropped by 42%, prices fell, and this hit both industries and farmers hard. Many workers faced pay cuts, and unemployment soared—up to one-third of German workers found themselves without jobs. In 1928, there were 1.4 million unemployed; by 1932, that number had skyrocketed to 6 million. Alongside this, crime rates, especially among young people, surged. The weak coalition governments of the Weimar Republic, exacerbated by the proportional representation system, were criticized for their inability to tackle these serious economic challenges.

During this time, Hitler stepped in with promises of jobs and food for the German people, vowing to achieve full employment through large state-funded projects like building highways and rearming Germany, which had been restricted by the Treaty of Versailles. This rearmament appealed to German generals, as a larger army would elevate their status. Additionally, Hitler garnered support from business leaders by assuring them he wouldn’t meddle in their operations, would limit trade union powers, and would provide them with substantial government contracts for construction and armaments.

Traditional German Values

Hitler was eager to showcase the Nazi Party as a champion of German traditions. They promoted the idea of Volksgemeinschaft, or a traditional folk community, which envisioned a self-sufficient society without class divisions. The Nazis skillfully aimed to connect with various segments of German society, including Protestants, farmers, workers, the middle class, youth, and women, tailoring specific propaganda campaigns for each group. This often resulted in contradictory messages, but that didn’t hinder their propaganda efforts. Their themes ranged from family values to the importance of growing food locally, resonating with deeply rooted beliefs in Germany. As historian F. McDonough puts it, Hitler played an old tune using modern instruments (93). This approach proved effective: electoral data revealed that the Nazi Party wasn’t just a ‘middle-class party’ but attracted votes from diverse social classes, age groups, and regions (ibid, 88).

The quest for popularity extended beyond adults to future voters, leading to the establishment of the Hitler Youth as early as 1922. This organization paid homage to traditional German youth groups. Young boys (and later girls) were immersed in Nazi ideology, including racial theories, while also being encouraged to value physical fitness, wear smart uniforms, obey authority, embrace nationalism, support militarism, and idolize Hitler. As these young people reached voting age in the 1930s, Hitler nurtured a grassroots following that often exhibited intense loyalty.

Identifying Scapegoats

Hitler rose to prominence by positioning himself as a fierce opponent of Communism, which many Germans viewed as a significant threat following the Russian Revolution of 1917. He pinpointed various ‘enemies’ that he claimed were hindering Germany’s progress and stopping the nation from reaching its full potential. Alongside Communists, these enemies included trade unionists, Slavic individuals, Romani people, those with disabilities, and, most notably, Jewish people. It’s worth mentioning that while anti-Semitism became a central part of Nazi ideology later on, it didn’t resonate much with voters before 1933, and it wasn’t exclusive to the NSDAP. Instead, during this early phase, it was the more uplifting messages from the Nazis that attracted the public. Hitler believed that the pure German or Aryan race was meant to be the dominant race in the world, but he argued that this could only happen if other races and groups were eliminated. In essence, he blamed all of Germany’s troubles

The Cult of Hitler

Hitler was a captivating public figure, known for his powerful speeches that could stir audiences into a whirlwind of admiration. His compelling words and grand ideas resonated deeply during a time of despair for the German people. While some found his approach off-putting, it became an addictive allure for millions. The highlight of the Nazi Party’s annual Nuremberg Rally, which was already a grand celebration filled with pomp and ceremony, was undoubtedly Hitler’s speech, serving as the grand finale of the event. He recognized the significance of presentation and how a well-crafted spectacle could sway those who were still uncertain about Nazi policies. In fact, he dedicated two chapters of Mein Kampf to discussing the importance of presentation and propaganda. Amidst impressive architecture, striking lighting, and vibrant flags, Hitler delivered his dramatic speeches, employing a mix of stereotypes, rhetorical techniques, and emotionally charged language. As noted by William L. Shirer, a renowned historian of the Third Reich who witnessed these rallies firsthand, the event was a tiring week filled with parades, speeches, and fervent admiration for a public figure like no other. For those unable to attend in person, many tuned in to hear Hitler and other party leaders speak on the radio. The media, films, and posters also played a crucial role in creating a cult-like following around Hitler. Essentially, the Nazi Party embodied Hitler, and in time, the German state would come to reflect him as well.

Invitation to Power

In 1932, German President Paul von Hindenburg, who was not particularly fond of democracy and had run out of alternatives, decided to invite Hitler to become chancellor. Even though Hitler didn’t have a majority in parliament, Hindenburg believed he was the best choice to lead a coalition government. There was also a belief that having Hitler in government would make him easier to control than if he were outside of it. Interestingly, the Nazi Party might have already peaked in popularity by 1932. In the November elections of that year, they lost 34 seats compared to just three months earlier. Hoping to regain some momentum, Hitler called for another general election in March 1933, aiming for a decisive victory. To boost their popularity ahead of the elections, the Nazis got a surprising opportunity with the Reichstag fire on February 27, 1933. Although it appeared to be started by a Communist anarchist, there’s speculation that the Nazis may have set the fire themselves. This incident allowed Hitler to assert that only his party could restore order and prevent a Communist uprising.

The Nazi paramilitary groups were far from being protectors of law and order. The SA (Sturmabteilung), known as ‘brownshirts,’ often resorted to violence against political opponents, intimidated voters at polling places, and distributed party propaganda when they weren’t busy causing trouble. In the March elections, the Nazi Party secured 288 seats. While this still wasn’t a majority, they formed an alliance with the conservative-nationalist German National People’s Party (DNVP) to gain more power. Finally, Hitler no longer had to yield to his political rivals.

Consolidation of Power

After securing 44% of the vote in the elections and capitalizing on the fears generated by the Reichstag fire, Hitler swiftly worked to solidify his authority as Germany’s leader. He outlawed the Communist Party, which remained a significant anti-Nazi force despite ongoing intimidation. Hitler declared martial law and introduced a decree that granted the police expanded powers of arrest while severely restricting civil liberties. This was soon followed by the Enabling Act, which was passed through coercion of parliament members and barred Communist representatives from participating. The Enabling Act enabled Hitler to circumvent parliamentary procedures and, by prohibiting all political parties except for the Nazi Party, he established a totalitarian regime. The Nazis took control of everything, including the police and the media. When Hindenburg passed away in August 1934, Hitler combined the roles of president and chancellor, proclaiming himself Germany’s Führer. All military personnel were required to pledge loyalty directly to him. At this point, Hitler had truly become synonymous with the state. His lengthy ascent to power culminated in a reign that led to the tragic deaths of millions of Jewish individuals and other minority groups. Fueled by his domestic power, Hitler’s invasion of Poland in 1939 ignited another world war, ultimately resulting in his own downfall and that of Germany.