Greek hoplites were the affluent citizen-soldiers of ancient Greek city-states, equipped with spears and shields. Renowned for their Phalanx formation, a term meaning ‘battle array’ in Greek, they emerged prominently in the 5th century BCE, heralding a new era in Greek State history. This shift was largely driven by the need to counter the looming threat of the Persian empire, prompting the Greeks to adapt for survival. In the following narrative, we’ll imaginatively shadow a hypothetical Athenian hoplite through a full day of combat.
Understanding Greek Hoplites
The term “Hoplite” originates from the Greek word “ὅπλον” (hóplon), meaning arms or armor. Hoplites were key military units in the armies of Greek city-states, classified based on wealth. They were primarily affluent peasant farmers, capable of affording heavy infantry equipment. Achieving their first significant victory in the 5th-century BCE, they successfully repelled Persian invaders. In Athens, hoplites served as part-time soldiers with minimal formal training, often having to leave their civilian jobs to serve when called upon. In stark contrast, Sparta was a fully militarized society, where military service was a central aspect of life.
Hoplite Weapons and Gear
Hoplites didn’t have a standard uniform or equipment, so each soldier’s appearance varied. The full armor set, called the “panoply” (meaning “all arms”), was costly and often inherited within families, replaced only when necessary.
For defense, hoplites wore a bronze helmet (kranos), bronze shinguards (knimis), and a cuirass, a torso protector crafted from either bronze or layers of glued linen. Their shield (aspis) was made of wood, often reinforced with bronze on the outer surface and around the rim, and gripped by an edge handle (antilabe).
In battle, a hoplite’s primary weapon was an iron-tipped spear (dory), ranging from 6 to 9 feet in length. With a leaf-shaped head and a rear spike (for use if the spearhead broke or to dispatch grounded foes), it was ideal for overhand or underhand thrusts as the first line of attack.
For close combat, hoplites used various edged weapons like the xiphos, a double-edged, one-handed sword used when the spear wasn’t an option. While the typical blade length was 20 to 24 inches, Spartans during the Greco-Roman Wars reportedly favored shorter blades, around 12 inches.
Path to War
When not in combat, hoplites led ordinary lives, working in various jobs like other Greek citizens. Upon receiving a mobilization call, a hoplite would head home to gather his gear, following instructions on the amount and type of food needed for the campaign, typically including salt, onions, and salt fish. They relied on wagons for carrying part of their equipment and provisions, managed by a personal baggage carrier (skemophoroi) – often a slave or a younger relative. These attendants were responsible for transporting bedding, personal items, collecting firewood, foraging, and cooking.
In the military camp, after a night’s rest, our hypothetical hoplite would wake up and join the Ariston (breakfast), where generals made final battle plans. The Greek army also had a deipnon (dinner) in the evening. Battles usually took place midday, after both sides had their ariston. Some soldiers might drink a little wine before combat to steady their nerves.
Post-breakfast, the army would march to form their battle lines, leaving older soldiers behind in the camp. The primary formation was the renowned phalanx, whose effectiveness hinged on the unit’s cohesion. Each hoplite’s survival depended on his comrades: shields overlapped for protection, stragglers were encouraged to keep up, and mutual defense was paramount. This required not only discipline but also a strong motivation to protect fellow soldiers.
The Advance of Hoplites
The ephodos (advance) and epidrome (charge) were crucial moments in battle. Our experienced hoplite, positioned at the forefront, played a key role in maintaining formation. It’s important to note that the Phalanx was most effective on flat terrain, as crossing water could disrupt their formation. The Spartans pioneered the practice of singing a war song (paean) during the march, a custom that spread among Greek soldiers. This singing served as a psychological tool to manage the fear and vulnerability felt as they neared enemy lines.
Thucydides observed that a phalanx often drifted rightward during an advance. This was because each soldier instinctively sought protection for his unshielded side behind his neighbor’s shield, believing that tighter shield formation offered greater safety.
Timing the charge was critical for the general. Too late, and the formation lost momentum; too early, and it risked disorganization and diminished cohesion. At the right moment, signaled by the general and within a specific distance from the enemy, the hoplites would transition into a sprint, charging while emitting a piercing war cry, “eleleu” as described by Aristophanes.
Ancient Greek Combat
In the heat of battle, our hoplite and his comrades engaged the enemy’s phalanx. Frontline hoplites thrust their spears through gaps in the opposing shield wall, while those behind supported them by pushing with their own shields.
The combat unfolded in two stages. First, the dorastimos (spear fight) saw skilled warriors targeting vulnerable areas above and below the enemy’s shield with quick, repetitive spear jabs. Often, spears broke in this initial clash, leading to the second phase: sword combat.
Hoplites fought with a sense of duty to their families back home. Serving alongside relatives or neighbors in the same unit, the disgrace of fleeing the battle would haunt a deserter for life, faced with constant reminders from his community.
Invariably, part of a phalanx would give way under the assault. Not all soldiers fled when an army broke; some, like Socrates at the Battle of Delion, rallied the remnants for an orderly retreat, saving lives like that of Alcibiades.
The aftermath of a routed army was often brutal, with fleeing soldiers (“shield-flingers” or rhipsaspis in Athens) discarding shields and weapons for faster escape, resulting in high casualties. Victory for our hoplite’s army meant maintaining formation to pursue the enemy, wary of potential threats from other battlefield fronts.
Post-Battle: Hoplite’s Experience
In these ancient battles, the winning side typically suffered casualties of around five percent, with front-line hoplites—those directly engaged in combat—bearing a higher proportion of losses. The defeated side, on the other hand, often faced casualties up to about 15 percent.
Following victory and the return from pursuing the enemy, our hoplite’s army would first tend to the wounded and then collect their fallen comrades. Next, they stripped armor, weapons, and jewelry from enemy corpses. This loot was pooled together; a tenth was dedicated to a deity as thanks for victory, while the remainder was either auctioned to fund the state or distributed among the troops.
Battle memorials, crafted from the gear of the vanquished, were erected at strategic points on the battlefield, often where the battle’s tide turned. The defeated city-state would then send a herald to negotiate a truce for the burial of their dead, a traditional gesture of conceding defeat.
