The role of ancient Greek women in warfare has often been overlooked by classicists and historians. While there has been some focus on women as casualties of war, their active participation in military affairs hasn’t been fully explored. Scholars like Schaps, Barry, and Graf have touched upon certain aspects, but a comprehensive study is still missing. Moreover, the effectiveness of women in wartime roles has been underappreciated in existing research. This article aims to shed light on the significant contributions Greek women made during wars, both domestically and in foreign campaigns.
To set the stage for understanding their contributions, it’s important to first examine the general attitudes of Greek women towards war. This perspective is primarily gleaned from male writers, but we also have insights from the works of Greek women themselves, notably the poets Anyte and Nossis. Their poems offer a glimpse into how some Greek women perceived war and soldiers.
Two of the extant poems by Anytc ideal with heroic death on the battlefield:
In the prime of life, death claimed you, its shadow falling,
Bringing to your mother Pheidia a grief most appalling.
Yet, this stone above whispers a tale so grand,
Of your valiant fall defending our cherished land.Here lies Amyntor, Philip’s son, in Lydian soil embraced,
A warrior who in iron-clad battles was oft faced.
Not by sickness was he taken to the night’s eternal realm,
But fell shielding a comrade, his shield firm at the helm.
The Iwo poems referenced earlier clearly show a deep respect for men who gave their lives for their country. In another poem, Anyte portrays an epitaph for a horse that perished in battle. These poems, both individually and collectively, suggest that Anyte held war in high regard, glorifying it through her verses.
Nossis, the second Hellenistic woman poet known to have written about war, was equally full of admiration for men who fought bravely:
The Bruttian warriors, their fate sealed in strife, shed these shields,
Felled by swift Locrian hands upon the battlefield yields.
In temples of the gods, their valor now rests in celebrated tales,
Unmissed, the arms of those cowards whom in battle they assailed.
The portrayal of women in war by the two female poets, Anyte and Nossis, aligns with traditional views. They commend bravery in battle and support the military endeavors of their men, seemingly endorsing war itself. However, their works don’t suggest that women themselves took active roles in warfare. This perspective mirrors the sentiments found in more well-known male-authored texts.
Take, for example, Herodotus’s account of Athenian women stoning Lydides, who advocated for peace in 479 BCE, and the subsequent lynching of his family. If accurate, this story indicates that women were not inherently pacifists; they could strongly support war. Reports commonly depict women mourning defeats or celebrating victories alongside their men, rather than expressing a preference for peace, suggesting a backing of their men’s actions.
In contrast, Aristophanes’s comedy “Lysistrata” is often cited in anti-war debates. The play’s central character, Lysistrata, and her cohorts are seen as pacifists and anti-war activists. However, a closer examination reveals that these women were not against war on humanitarian or ideological grounds. Their motivation to end the war, through initiating a sex strike, stemmed from a desire to bring their husbands home, driven by loneliness, a sense of unimportance, and sexual frustration. The women’s reluctance to abstain from sex, even to end the war, undermines the notion of their pacifism. Aristophanes’s portrayal suggests that the women were less opposed to war in principle and more concerned with being neglected by their men.
However, using “Lysistrata” as a reflection of Greek women’s attitudes towards war is questionable due to its fictional nature. Yet, the play is notable for its depiction of women breaking societal norms by engaging directly in the male-dominated realms of military politics, including seizing the Acropolis.
Ancient authors often depict Spartan women as particularly patriotic and admiring of battlefield bravery. Plutarch, for instance, recounts the story of a Spartan mother who sent all five of her sons to war and was more concerned about the outcome of the battle than the loss of her sons, illustrating the depth of her patriotism and the societal expectations of Spartan women.
Plutarch indicates that Spartan women and girls underwent physical training to defend themselves, their children, and their country. However, it seems they weren’t trained for actual combat or depicted as participating in military campaigns. An intriguing aspect of Greek warfare mythology involves the Amazons, a group of warrior women believed to have broken traditional martial roles. But from a modern scholarly perspective, the Amazons are more myth than history, residing in the realm of legends and fiction.
While some contemporary scholars entertain the possibility that the Amazon myth might have roots in reality, perhaps based on similar tribes with warrior women, definitive evidence supporting this is lacking. Most scholars remain cautious about asserting the historicity of such figures. Doubts about the Amazons’ existence aren’t new; skepticism existed even in antiquity. Notable figures like Plutarch, Strabo, and Arrian voiced their doubts or tried to justify their belief in the Amazons, indicating a longstanding debate about their existence.
Despite the likely mythical nature of the Amazons, their stories were a significant part of ancient beliefs, especially popular in Classical Athens. As Blundell suggests, these myths served a purpose: they reinforced societal norms. By depicting the Amazons as defeated by Greek men, they acted as ‘negative role models,’ emphasizing that in a civilized Greek society, women were expected to marry and leave politics and fighting to men.
The common literary portrayal of Greek women shows them as patriotic but mostly passive supporters of their men in war. However, the following discussion will reveal that Greek women actually played numerous active roles in warfare. This exploration is divided into two parts: the first demonstrates Greek women’s participation in defending their cities and communities, while the second part addresses the misconception that women had no role in foreign military campaigns.
Ancient Greek Women at Home
During times of imminent attack or siege, Greek women played a crucial role in providing moral support and encouragement to the men defending their cities. The presence of mothers, sisters, wives, lovers, and daughters in the cities likely served as a powerful motivator for the men to fight fiercely. Military leaders sometimes explicitly highlighted the threat to families to spur their soldiers into action. For instance, Lyciscus, an Acarnanian envoy in Sparta in 211 BCE, starkly reminded his soldiers of the dire consequences for their families should they fall into enemy hands.
Moreover, the desire to appear brave and successful in the eyes of their loved ones was a significant factor for Greek soldiers. Archidamus, son of Agesilaus, king of Sparta, urged his fellow citizens to prove their bravery to avoid shame before their families and peers.
Spartan women were particularly renowned for their intolerance of cowardice in their men. They often sent letters to their sons on the battlefield, urging them to show bravery or face death. A famous account by Plutarch tells of a Spartan mother who presented her son with two options as he left for war: return with his shield or on it, the latter implying death in battle. Some Spartan mothers reportedly went as far as killing their sons if they returned alive after a defeat, interpreting their survival as a sign of cowardice.
While family support was vital for Greek soldiers, divine favor was equally important. Surprisingly, despite women’s significant roles in religious activities, evidence presented by Graf suggests that women did not participate in the prayers and sacrifices associated with warfare. However, their involvement in warfare did influence the origins of various cults. It’s important to recognize that women’s religious responsibilities, including those related to funerals and tomb cults, were integral, especially during wartime when there were many casualties to mourn and bury. The extent to which Greeks could adhere to funeral rituals during crises is uncertain, but efforts were undoubtedly made to honor these traditions.
Women’s involvement in ancient warfare extended beyond moral and spiritual support, encompassing several other significant roles. One such role was financial support, with women often voluntarily donating money and jewelry for military efforts. However, there were also instances where women were compelled to contribute financially, like in 146/5 BCE when Diaeus, leader of the Achaean League, mandated wealthy Achaeans, including women, to fund the war against Sparta and Rome.
In addition to financial contributions, women played a crucial role in food production for armies, a responsibility that was particularly vital during sieges or foreign campaigns. For example, during the Peloponnesian War, 110 women were left in Plataea to cook for 400 men who stayed behind to withstand a siege. Spartan women distributing food and drinks to their men in war and Cyrenean women preparing food for city defenders are other instances. Food preparation, while not a military task per se, is critical for any military action, as evidenced by the challenges faced by coalition forces during the Second Gulf War in 2003 due to food supply issues.
When a city’s defenses were close to failing, women sometimes directly assisted their men. In the early third century BCE, Spartan women, refusing to flee despite imminent danger from Pyrrhus, took on tasks like digging trenches, delivering weapons, nursing the wounded, and burying the dead. This involvement wasn’t unique to Spartan women; in Cyrene, women engaged in similar activities when their city was besieged by Ptolemy.
Women could also display heroic actions if enemies breached city walls. A notable method was climbing onto rooftops and throwing roof tiles at invaders. This tactic proved successful in some cases, such as when an Argive woman famously killed King Pyrrhus of Epirus in 272 BCE by striking him with a tile. Barry, in his article “Roof Tiles and Urban Violence in the Ancient World,” demonstrates how deadly roof tiles could be. This incident wasn’t isolated, as there are other recorded instances of men being killed by women using this method.
Pausanias and Plutarch provide additional examples of women actively defending their towns. Messenian women, as mentioned by Pausanias, successfully repelled Macedonian forces from Ithome by throwing tiles. Plutarch recounts how women from Chios used stones to drive away Philip V, effectively saving their city. These instances underscore the significant role women could play in town defense.
However, such methods as tile and stone throwing were not foolproof strategies for victory. For instance, Acarnanian women, despite their valiant efforts, were slaughtered alongside their men when they attempted to stonewall Aetolian invaders. Yet, there are stories where women helped rescue their cities even after their men had surrendered, like Carian women secretly providing hidden weapons to their men, as noted by Polyaenus.
While these actions were exceptional, they highlight the potential for women’s involvement in warfare beyond passive roles. Unfortunately, the fall of a city often led to tragic outcomes for women, including enslavement and rape. In some cases, women took drastic measures for honor and to avoid such fates. A notable example is Timocleia of Thebes, who, after being raped by one of Alexander the Great’s men, killed her assailant, thus preserving her honor.
The fear of rape and enslavement sometimes drove women to extreme actions, such as killing their own children or committing mass suicide. This was not only to protect themselves but also to prevent dishonor to their families and cities. Polyaenus recounts the story of Axiothea, wife of the Cypriot king Nicocles, who, after her husband’s downfall, encouraged other women to kill their children and themselves rather than surrender to Ptolemy I. She ultimately committed suicide in a dramatic fashion to avoid enemy control over her body.
In other cases, the threat of women and children being killed by their own people to avoid capture was a motivator for men in battle. Polyaenus reports that Phocian women’s decision to commit mass suicide in case of defeat spurred their men to fight harder and secure victory. Pausanias, however, presents a different version of this story, suggesting it was the men who planned to kill their women and children if defeat was imminent. These stories, though tragic, demonstrate the complex and often dire role of women in the context of ancient Greek warfare.
Anyte, whose pro-war poems were quoted above, also wrote an epigram glorifying suicide in the face of defeat (this would imply that women could, indeed, have taken the initiative on such matters):
We leave you, Miletus, dear homeland, because we rejected the lawless insolence of impious Gauls. We were three maidens, your citizens. The violent aggression of the Celts brought US to this fate. We did not wait for unholy union or marriage, but we found ourselves a protector in Death
Greek women, through extreme measures like murder and suicide, often sought to protect their honor and their city’s reputation, even in situations where the city’s defense failed. Their actions underscored a deep commitment to their communities and values.
An essential aspect of defensive warfare in Greek cities was maintaining the loyalty of women. A single act of betrayal by a woman could jeopardize an entire city. For instance, after the Battle of Marathon, Timo, a Parian priestess, advised Athenian Miltiades on how to conquer her city, Paros.
Despite such instances, the general portrayal of Greek women in literature and history is one of patriotism and loyalty to their polis. The works of poets like Anyte and Nossis support this image. As demonstrated, women contributed significantly to their cities’ defenses in various capacities, and their efforts were not only necessary but often highly valued.
Aristotle’s critique of Spartan women during the Theban attack in 396 BCE inadvertently highlights this point. He notes their lack of usefulness in defense, which contrasts with the helpful roles played by women in other states. This comparison suggests that, typically, Greek women were indeed active and effective participants in the defense of their cities, contributing significantly to their communities during times of war.
Ancient Greek Women on Warfare Foreign Campaign
The involvement of Greek women in warfare, particularly in defensive roles, might not be entirely surprising given their commitment to protecting their homes. However, what is less acknowledged and perhaps more unexpected is the significant role Greek women played in offensive warfare, especially during the Hellenistic period.
Although Xenophon claimed women were biologically unfit for war, history tells us otherwise. Several individual women, particularly from royal Macedonian households, actively participated in battles. For instance, Cynane, Alexander the Great’s half-sister, was trained in warfare and even engaged in battles. After her death, her daughter Eurydice took command of her troops. Eurydice’s confrontation with Olympias, Alexander’s mother, is a notable instance of women leading in warfare.
The Hellenistic period saw numerous queens and princesses from royal houses like the Ptolemaic and Seleucid dynasties leading armies. Notably, the Ptolemaic queens, due to their wealth and power, often commanded forces. Queens like Arsinoe II, Berenice II, and Cleopatra VII are among those credited with military leadership. Other examples include Teuta, the Illyrian Queen, who commanded mercenaries, and Cratesipolis, who took over her husband’s troops and maintained control over her soldiers and city.
Some royal women, like Phila, wife of Demetrius Poliorketes, were known for their ability to manipulate troops without officially leading them. The presence of these women on battlefields, such as Arsinoe III, sister and wife of Ptolemy IV, did not seem peculiar to ancient sources, suggesting that their participation in warfare was not an extremely rare occurrence.
However, it’s important to note that the military success of these Hellenistic queens varied. Cynane is notable for being the only recorded woman to have killed an enemy in battle and for winning over a part of Alexander’s army. In contrast, many of these women faced military blunders. For example, Nicaea lost her city and life due to deception by Antigonus, and Eurydice lost control of her troops and her life in a battle against Olympias.
Beyond these queens and princesses, there are scarce records of individual women participating in active combat, except for extraordinary stories like that of Herat’s, as mentioned by Diodorus. Her tale, however, veers into the realm of legend rather than historical fact.
In summary, while Greek women’s roles in offensive warfare were not widespread, several notable instances in the Hellenistic period highlight their involvement, particularly among royal women, who leveraged their positions to lead and influence military actions.
The examples of women participating in battles during ancient Greek times highlight a key distinction: these women were not ‘ordinary’ Greek citizens but rather belonged to specific, exceptional groups. Many were royal women like the Ptolemaic queens, who had entered the realm of power politics where military capability was a significant aspect of royal authority. These women, including those connected with Alexander the Great, often had foreign backgrounds, like Illyrian descent, where women were traditionally more familiar with military matters.
The Amazons represent another category of women warriors, but they are vastly different from typical Greek women and are considered more a product of literary imagination than historical figures. The depiction of Amazons in literature often served as an inversion of the typical expectations of Greek males, particularly Athenians, regarding women’s roles.
The case of Herat’s, the supposed transsexual cavalry member, is puzzling. If she did exist and join an army, it could be that she was a particularly masculine woman around whom wild stories developed. However, it’s more likely that this tale was created to reconcile the idea of a Greek woman in combat with the prevailing societal norms that confined women’s military involvement to defensive roles.
In general, ‘normal’ Greek women did not participate in offensive wars, or if they did, such instances were not reported in literature. Greek women did play important non-combat roles, especially in producing soldiers for citizen armies. However, as mercenary armies became more prevalent towards the end of the Classical period and into the Hellenistic era, the role of women shifted. Mercenary armies often included female camp followers, including wives, mistresses, and families of the soldiers.
Xenophon’s account of the Ten Thousand’s journey back to Greece mentions women and children accompanying the men, indicating that female camp followers were not uncommon even in the Classical period. High-ranking individuals in Alexander’s army, like Philotas and Ptolemy I Soter, had female companions who played various roles, from concubines and wives to spies and influential figures.
In the Hellenistic period, it became almost standard for not just officers but mercenaries in general to take their families with them. This shift is also indicated by the decline in references to homosexual relationships among Greek soldiers. The mass emigration of Cretan mercenaries to Miletus, as evidenced by epigraphic records, is a notable example of this trend, showing a significant movement of not just the soldiers but their families as well.
In conclusion, while the direct participation of ordinary Greek women in offensive warfare was limited or non-existent, their roles in supporting armies, both as producers of soldiers and as integral parts of mercenary communities, were crucial and evolved over time.
The Gauls, known for their widespread travel due to mercenary service, provide a notable example of how families, including women and children, were integral to ancient armies. A Roman consul in 189 BCE observed that the Gauls had essentially made the world their home through mercenary work. The Gallic mercenaries, often employed by Greek armies, typically brought their families along on campaigns. Antigonus, for instance, had about 9,000 Gallic mercenaries, but the total number of Gauls in his expedition was around 30,000, including families. They even demanded payment for their non-combatant family members. This practice of bringing families on campaigns was not exclusive to the Gauls; it was common among other mercenaries of the time.
The presence of families, including women and children, in military expeditions was so fundamental to Hellenistic mercenary armies that soldiers sometimes refused to fight without their families. For example, Demetrius Poliorcetes faced desertions in 307 BCE when his soldiers, unable to bring their families from Egypt, abandoned him. The term “aposkeue,” initially meaning ‘baggage,’ came to include soldiers’ families, highlighting their importance in military campaigns.
Women accompanying armies played various roles, including the maintenance of arms and armor. They were involved in tasks like sharpening spears, supplying missiles, dyeing helmets, and even possibly assisting in the production of arms and armor. A case in point is Artemisia, a helmet maker’s wife, who was involved in gilding helmets, suggesting that other women might have also contributed to manufacturing arms and armor.
Entertainers, including female artists, also played a significant role in ancient armies. Known examples from history include Pericles employing hetairai (courtesans) during the siege of Samos in 440 BCE, and Alexander the Great’s army, which included a variety of entertainers like Thais, a renowned courtesan. The inclusion of entertainers was not merely for leisure; it served a practical purpose in maintaining morale and preventing tension among the troops, especially during long periods of inactivity.
In conclusion, women’s roles in ancient armies extended beyond combat, encompassing various support functions critical to the overall effectiveness and morale of the forces. From maintaining equipment to providing entertainment, women were an essential part of the military apparatus, contributing significantly to the day-to-day operations and well-being of the soldiers.
Conclusion
Greek women played far more than a passive role in warfare; their contributions were diverse and critical. They provided immense emotional, spiritual, and motivational support to their men. This support wasn’t just intangible; women were instrumental in ensuring armies were well-supplied, particularly in terms of food, arms, and armor, whether the men were fighting nearby or on distant campaigns.
While it’s true that only a few exceptional Greek women engaged in direct combat on the battlefields, many ordinary women defended their cities and communities with whatever means they had, often using roof tiles as weapons. Their efforts in town defense were sometimes crucial and effective, a fact occasionally recognized by ancient authors like Aristotle.
The patriotism and courage of Greek women are starkly evident in the numerous instances of mass suicides they committed to uphold their personal honor and the reputation of their cities.
The role of women as camp followers in military campaigns has often been overlooked in historical accounts. While female entertainers and prostitutes are occasionally mentioned by historians, their true significance in maintaining soldier morale has only recently been fully appreciated. High morale is crucial in enhancing soldiers’ combat effectiveness and cohesion.
Particularly notable in the Hellenistic period was the common practice of soldiers bringing their wives and children on campaigns. The presence of families was not just a matter of comfort but a necessity for many soldiers, to the extent that some campaigns might not have proceeded without this allowance. In essence, while warfare was predominantly a male domain, it was a domain significantly reliant on women’s participation and support. In the world of ancient Greek warfare, women were indispensable – their roles and contributions were vital to the success and even the feasibility of military endeavors.
