The Arapaho are a Native American tribe that originally came from the Red River Valley, which is now in Manitoba, Canada, and Minnesota, USA. They moved south in the early 1700s and settled in areas that are now Colorado, Montana, Nebraska, Wyoming, and further down. They’re part of the Plains Indian culture and have been close allies with the Cheyenne for a long time.
Initially, the Arapaho lived an agricultural lifestyle, but everything changed when French traders introduced them to horses. With horses, they could hunt over greater distances, which led them to become more nomadic. As the Ojibwe people expanded in the Great Lakes area, the Arapaho moved further south. According to scholar Adele Nozedar:
By the time the settlers from the United States encountered them, the Arapaho were already skilled horse riders and buffalo hunters. Their original territory was in what’s now northern Minnesota, but they relocated to the eastern Plains regions of Colorado and Wyoming around the same time as the Cheyenne. Because of this, the two tribes are linked and are recognized together as the Cheyenne and Arapaho Tribes.
The Arapaho speak their own language, which is part of the Algonquian family, and they still practice their traditional animistic religion today. Many have mixed these ancient beliefs with Christian practices. They were among the Plains Indians who took part in the Sun Dance (which they called the Offerings Lodge) back in the 19th century, and they continue to observe this ritual at the Northern Arapaho Reservation in Wind River, Wyoming.
Like other tribes on the Great Plains, the Arapaho faced conflicts with Euro-American settlers moving westward in the mid-1800s. They teamed up with the Cheyenne and Sioux, participating in several wars like the Colorado War (1864-1865), Red Cloud’s War (1866-1868), and the Great Sioux War (1876-1877). The Southern Arapaho were camped with the Southern Cheyenne under Chief Black Kettle when they were attacked by US cavalry during the Sand Creek Massacre on November 29, 1864. This tragic event only made them more determined to protect their ancestral lands from the encroaching White settlers.
Eventually, both the Northern and Southern Arapaho realized that fighting against such overwhelming forces was pointless, so they agreed to move onto reservations.By 1868, both the Northern and Southern Arapaho realized that fighting against such powerful forces was pointless, so they decided to move onto reservations. This is partly why there weren’t many Arapaho at the Battle of the Little Bighorn in 1876. The Southern Arapaho were sent to Indian Territory, which is now Oklahoma, while the Northern Arapaho ended up on a reservation with the Shoshone in Wyoming, who were their traditional foes.
Similar to the Pawnee, the Arapaho were allowed to keep practicing the Ghost Dance, which started with the Paiute Nation in 1889, even after the US government banned other tribes like the Sioux from doing it. The songs and rituals tied to the Ghost Dance helped the Arapaho preserve a lot of their culture, and both Northern and Southern Arapaho still carry on these traditions today.
Name & Nation
The name “Arapaho” was given to the tribe by European settlers who messed up the pronunciation of what the Crow nation called them, which was Alappaho (meaning Many Tattoos). Eventually, the Arapaho people started using that name for themselves. They originally referred to themselves as Hinono’eino, meaning “the people” or “our people.” The Cheyenne called them Hitanwo’iv, which translates to “People of the Sky,” but it’s not really clear why.
Back in the 18th century, the Arapaho nation was made up of five groups, each speaking a different dialect of the Algonquin Arapaho language:
- Beesowuunenno (Big Lodge People)
- Hanahawuuena (Rock People)
- Hinanae’inan (Arapaho Proper)
- Nawathi’neha (Southern People)
- Haa’ninin (White Clay People, also known as Atsina and Gros Ventre)
The Gros Ventre broke away from the other groups in the early 1700s and were later looked down upon by the Arapaho. After that, the Arapaho nation was mainly defined by the four remaining bands, which split into Northern and Southern Arapaho. The northern band took on the role of the main tribe responsible for protecting important sacred items like the ceremonial flat pipe.
Government & Daily Life
Back in the 19th century, the Arapaho had a government led by a council of four elders, each representing different bands within the community. These elders were picked based on their character, wisdom, and insight, all agreed upon by the group. There was also a council of older women whose advice was sought before making important decisions for the nation or its societies. When someone was born into a certain society, they had to take a spiritual vow early on to commit to that group’s duties. As they grew up, they took more vows alongside their peers as young men moved up in their society. Girls and women stayed in their father’s society until they got married, then they climbed the social ladder based on their husbands’ status.
These societies had various jobs like enforcing the council’s decisions, keeping peace in the village, organizing hunts or war parties, and defending the community. Even though the Arapaho are often seen as peaceful folks focused more on spiritual stuff than worldly issues, they were actually involved in battles with several other Native American tribes, such as the Apache, Arikara, Blackfoot Confederacy, Crow, Gros Ventre, Pawnee, and Ponca. Their military groups were similar to those of the Cheyenne, complete with their own symbols, rituals, and leaders known as war chiefs.
To become a war chief, it wasn’t just about being brave in battle (which often meant counting coup—basically touching or hitting an enemy without killing them). It also required showing spiritual growth through wise choices, patience, generosity, and top-notch fighting skills. The Arapaho were pretty familiar with firearms, having traded for them with French settlers back in the 1700s, around the same time they got introduced to horses. This made them tough warriors who were skilled with various weapons while riding, including lances, bows and arrows, tomahawks, knives, war clubs, and of course, the coup stick for counting coup.Arapaho women took care of a lot of important stuff like raising kids, farming, cooking, making clothes and shoes, setting up the lodge (or tipi), crafting jewelry, amulets, and charms, and also making saddles and gear for horses. Until they were about four or five, kids were mainly looked after by their female family members, but then boys started learning from the men in their lives. The Arapaho also acknowledged a third gender called haxu’xan (Two-Spirit), which referred to men who dressed and acted like women. These haxu’xan had similar duties as the women. A well-known character in Arapaho stories is Nih’a’ca, the first haxu’xan, who’s often portrayed as a trickster, much like Wihio from Cheyenne tales or Iktomi from Sioux stories, and he often ends up getting outsmarted. The tales of Nih’a’ca are some of the most beloved legends among the Arapaho.
On a daily basis, life involved harvesting crops (if they lived in a permanent village), taking care of their homes and community, hunting, preparing food, fixing clothes, repairing houses or communal lodges, playing sports—usually team games like chunkey or stickball—and engaging in spiritual practices. Besides personal prayers, these practices included festivals and community rituals, like the Sun Dance.
Religion, Ritual, & Afterlife
In the Arapaho Creation Story, the world was formed from mud that was pulled up from the depths of endless waters. The main figure in this creation is often referred to as Be He Teiht (Great Spirit), but in some versions, it’s another character called Father, Pipe Person, or Flat Pipe who sends different animals down to retrieve the vital mud. While most animals fail at this task, the duck and turtle manage to succeed. After that, Father (or the Great Spirit) creates the earth, sun, moon, and humans. Some animals were already around, and once the land was created, Father introduced land creatures. Since everything was made by the same conscious force, all living beings are seen as family, coexisting in what the Arapaho refer to as the World House.
The World House came into existence even before the earth was created, thanks to the Creator’s prayer-thought. A prayer-thought is a powerful desire that can change reality, and by connecting deeply with the Creator, people can harness this energy to enhance their lives and those of their families and communities. This practice became part of the Arapaho Sun Dance ritual (Offerings Lodge Ceremony), where participants would ask the Great Spirit for gifts, healing, or express gratitude through prayer-thoughts, making their requests more impactful.
Unlike the Sioux, the Arapaho didn’t practice self-torture during the Sun Dance. Instead, they offered flesh sacrifices—self-cutting—as shown in the myth “The Woman and the Monster.” This act was a way to demonstrate devotion and respect through personal sacrifice for the greater good. However, self-cutting wasn’t viewed as self-torture, which was a public affair. Those who preferred not to cut themselves had other options to show their piety, like donating land or personal belongings to the community.The flat pipe, which is said to have been around since the beginning of time, plays a key role in the Arapaho Sun Dance and all their other ceremonies and celebrations. Just like the Sioux ceremonial pipe, the Arapaho flat pipe was gifted to them by a supernatural being, specifically the Father (the spirit of the Arapaho people), who used its power for the prayers that led to creation.
When it comes to life after death, the Arapaho view is pretty similar to the Cheyenne’s. They believe that after you die, you’ll go back home to the Father and the Great Spirit, where you’ll find villages just like the ones you knew on Earth and reunite with those who passed away before you. This belief made the Ghost Dance really appealing to the Arapaho in 1889-1890 because they thought participating in the ritual would connect them to the spirit world, allowing them to bring back not just loved ones but also animals like the buffalo that had been wiped out by White settlers. They hoped this would help restore the natural balance of the world before Europeans arrived. During the Ghost Dance, Arapaho, Cheyenne, Sioux, and Paiute participants claimed to have visions of the afterlife, seeing their deceased relatives and buffalo herds as abundant as they used to be before the invasion.
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Conflict & Sand Creek Massacre
The tension between Euro-American settlers and the Plains Indians had been brewing since 1823, but it really escalated in 1848 with the California Gold Rush. This event caused a rush of miners and settlers to flood into the lands of the Arapaho, Cheyenne, and Sioux. These newcomers frequently hunted buffalo, which were essential for the Native Americans’ food, clothing, and other needs. They disrupted the buffalo herds and damaged the land with their wagons and cattle. In response, the Native Americans tried to push them out through various skirmishes and raids.
These conflicts eventually led to the Fort Laramie Treaty in 1851, which was supposed to set aside specific territories for each group—territories that the treaty stated the US had no right to claim—as well as areas where Euro-Americans could safely travel or settle. Notable Native American signers included Black Kettle from the Southern Cheyenne and Chief Niwot (Left Hand) from the Southern Arapaho. However, the US government pretty much ignored the treaty right after it was signed, and things got even worse in 1858 during the Pike’s Peak Gold Rush, leading to more clashes, raids by Native American warriors, and destruction of their lands and homes.
Another attempt to resolve the situation came with the Treaty of Fort Wise in 1861, but it turned out to be just as ineffective as the Fort Laramie Treaty. Once again, the US government and its citizens disregarded the terms. One of those terms promised that Native American groups who moved to designated reservations would receive food, supplies, and farming tools—but none of that ever arrived. With their people starving, Cheyenne chiefs like Tall Bull and Roman Nose, along with Arapaho leaders such as Chief Black Bear and Medicine Man, decided to raid settlements and wagon trains for food and essentials. These raids and the US military’s responses became known as the Colorado Wars.The US government had already labeled the Arapaho and Cheyenne as ‘hostiles,’ but things took a turn for the worse after the Hungate Massacre in June 1864. The Hungate family, living near Denver, Colorado, was killed in a raid, and their home was set on fire. Even though there was no proof that the Arapaho or Cheyenne were involved (and some evidence suggested they weren’t), Governor John Evans gave Colonel John Chivington the green light to take out any Arapaho or Cheyenne he came across. On November 29, 1864, Chivington launched an attack on Black Kettle’s village at Sand Creek, which was displaying both the American flag and a white flag of truce. He ended up killing over 150 Arapaho and Cheyenne, mostly women, kids, and the elderly. There was no sign of any raiders from the village who might have attacked the Hungate home.
Chief Niwot was among those killed, but Black Kettle managed to escape and kept pushing for peace along with other ‘peace chiefs’ from both tribes. However, the Sand Creek Massacre really hurt the reputation of these peace chiefs, making way for war chiefs like Black Bear, Medicine Man, Roman Nose, and Tall Bull to gain more respect. These war chiefs continued to resist US control until 1867 when the Southern Arapaho, led by Chief Little Raven, signed the Treaty of Medicine Lodge Creek. The Northern Arapaho kept fighting until 1868 when Medicine Man and Black Bear surrendered and agreed to move onto a reservation. Tragically, Black Kettle was killed later that year during the Washita Massacre, another unprovoked attack on a Native American village. Two years after that, in 1870, Black Bear and nearly 20 others were murdered by vigilantes who were out ‘hunting Indians’ in revenge for a raid on a mining site.
Conclusion
By 1870, both the Southern and Northern Arapaho were living on reservations, and sadly, leaders like Roman Nose and Tall Bull had lost their lives in battles, along with many other Cheyenne and Arapaho warriors. Little Raven was still trying to find a peaceful way for his people and worked hard to keep them out of the Great Sioux War from 1876 to 1877. Chief Black Coal, who led the Northern Arapaho, was on the same mission, but they couldn’t stop some of their fighters from teaming up with the Cheyenne and Sioux. It’s widely believed that only five Arapaho warriors fought at the Battle of the Little Bighorn, and one of them, Water Man, claimed he saw Lt. Colonel George Armstrong Custer die, although that claim has been disputed.
In 1890, the Arapaho joined the Sioux in the Ghost Dance movement, hoping it would spiritually cleanse their lands from Euro-American settlers and bring back balance. The US government saw this as a threat and reacted by arresting and killing Sioux Chief Sitting Bull, followed by the Wounded Knee Massacre on December 29, 1890. After that, the Sioux were banned from practicing the dance, but the Arapaho were allowed to continue.
By memorizing songs, prayers, and stories tied to the ritual, the Arapaho managed to hold onto their language, customs, and culture better than many other tribes. They were also permitted to keep doing the Sun Dance and other rituals, which helped preserve their traditions. Nowadays, the Southern Arapaho in Oklahoma and the Northern Arapaho in Wyoming are keeping these practices alive and passing them down to future generations.
