Studying ancient civilizations, like Greece, is a challenging task for historians. They often have to piece together the story of entire societies and cultures from limited sources. Surprisingly, ancient Greece has left us more records than many other ancient civilizations, but we still only have a small fraction of the original materials. This means that even in the most documented periods of Greek history, there are many aspects of their society and culture that remain unclear. However, there’s a silver lining. Each year, new discoveries shed more light on what we know, and fresh approaches to old sources are giving us a wider and more varied understanding of these ancient times.
Sources: How We Know about The Ancient Greeks
History is crafted from various sources, serving as the building blocks for historians’ narratives. Essentially, every relic from ancient times can be a valuable piece of the historical puzzle. These sources are generally categorized into two groups: physical artifacts, ranging from bones to buildings, and written records, which encompass texts written by the Greeks and others in antiquity. Interestingly, these two categories often overlap, such as words etched on pottery or inscriptions on stone pillars.
Considering most of these primary sources are over two thousand years old, and often even older, it’s not surprising that they usually need some form of restoration or reconstruction before they can be effectively used. Thankfully, historians don’t start from zero. They lean on the expertise of various specialists: archaeologists handle the excavation and interpretation of material evidence; paleographers work on understanding texts on papyrus and parchment; and epigraphists and numismatists focus on stone inscriptions and coins. The input from these experts is crucial for historians to interpret the past.
Archaeologists delve into past societies mainly through physical remains like buildings, tools, and artifacts, piecing together a history of material culture from the evolving patterns in these physical records. Historians, however, predominantly rely on documents, inscriptions, and literary texts to weave together narratives about events, people, and their actions, focusing on the why and the outcomes of those actions. Despite their different approaches, both archaeologists and historians are part of a collaborative effort to reconstruct the life and times of the Greek people throughout history.
Retrieving The Past: the Material Record
Ancient Greece, with most of its history buried underground, offers a unique challenge to archaeologists and historians. Apart from a few stone structures like temples that have withstood time above ground, the majority of Greek history has been unearthed from beneath the earth, sometimes from several feet deep. The soil in Greece isn’t conducive to preserving materials, leading to a scarcity of artifacts made from wood, cloth, and leather. However, certain materials have survived better: gold and silver are almost indestructible, bronze holds up fairly well, and iron is more prone to corrosion. Terra-cotta, or baked clay, is another remarkably durable material. It was widely used in antiquity for a variety of objects, but most of our clay artifacts are vessels found in large numbers in graves and other sites. These pots played a crucial role in helping archaeologists create a timeline for prehistoric and early historic Greece.
These clay pots came in numerous shapes and sizes: some were wide and round, others slim and tall, with various neck and mouth designs, and with or without feet or handles. Their sizes ranged from tiny perfume flasks to massive storage jars as big as a human. In ancient times, these vessels were essential for every conceivable storage need, serving as the ancient equivalent of bags, cartons, cooking pots, bottles, and even fine dinnerware. Their basic shapes remained similar over time, but style and decoration evolved, allowing archaeologists to arrange them in chronological order. By cross-dating earthenware from different sites, and especially by finding objects from other cultures, like a scarab with the name of an Egyptian king, archaeologists can establish more precise dates. These methods, along with modern scientific techniques like carbon-14 dating, have greatly aided in constructing an accurate historical timeline.
However, despite the significant achievements of modern archaeology in uncovering the ancient past, the silent testimony of these objects can only reveal so much. They provide a glimpse into the material culture, but they don’t fully convey the lived experiences, thoughts, and emotions of the people who used them.
The Written Record
In ancient times, various materials like clay, stone, metal, papyrus, and later parchment, were used for inscriptions. The Greek alphabet, introduced in the eighth century BC, was the primary script for most surviving texts, but we also have earlier examples like Linear B tablets from the second millennium BC.
The spread of the alphabet sparked an explosion of written works, but unfortunately, a vast amount of this literature has been lost. For instance, out of over 120 plays by Sophocles, only seven remain intact. However, the fact that about 20,000,000 words of Greek literature, spanning from the late eighth century BC to the second century AD, are preserved in electronic databases is remarkable.
Papyrus, used since the third millennium BC in Egypt, was the main writing medium in the ancient Mediterranean. Papyrus rolls, often over 20 feet long, were used to write texts in columns. A single roll could hold an average-sized play or a few books of Homer’s epics. The manual copying of texts was laborious and expensive, usually done by slaves. Greek scholars were quite diligent in preserving past authors, as evidenced by the vast collections of Alexandria’s library and Pergamum’s archives.
Selection and preservation of texts started early on. Alexandrian scholars even had a term for the list of authors deemed essential for study, which influenced survival chances of manuscripts. Over time, as tastes changed and manuscripts stopped being copied, many works were lost. Fortunately, the dry conditions of Egypt’s deserts have preserved numerous Greek papyri, including significant literary works and everyday documents.
Our understanding of different eras varies. For the Mycenaean Age, ample material evidence, including Linear B tablets, allows for a detailed understanding of society. However, the Dark Age until the eighth century BC left sparse material and no written records. From the seventh century BC onwards, the proliferation of both material and literary remains gives us a dynamic view of Greek history, culture, and technological innovations.
Literary sources encompass a variety of genres, from poetry to prose, including epics, dramas, histories, biographies, and philosophical works. While historians lean heavily on ancient historical and biographical texts, other genres are equally important for understanding the past.
It’s important to distinguish between mythical and historical narratives. For instance, Homer’s account of the Trojan War isn’t expected to be historically accurate. Even ancient historians, striving for truth, inevitably presented biased accounts, as seen in differing narratives by contemporaries like Herodotus and Thucydides. Most written sources come from a narrow demographic: urban, upper-class males. Therefore, historians use interdisciplinary approaches to shed light on the lives of women, the poor, and slaves, who are largely absent from these records.
A Synopsis of Written Sources by Periods
3000-700 BC
During the Bronze Age (circa 3000-1150 BC), the Greeks left behind no written records, except for the Linear B tablets towards the end of this period. This resulted in a long historical silence, mystifying even the ancient Greek historians who struggled to describe the centuries preceding the re-emergence of writing in the eighth century. Their main sources were orally transmitted myths and legends, some of which likely originated in the second millennium. For the Greeks of later periods, these stories were considered the history of their distant past, with the Trojan War, possibly occurring in the thirteenth century BC, as a pivotal event.
Homer’s “Iliad” and “Odyssey,” set around the Trojan War and its aftermath, are the earliest texts we have. Believed to be the culmination of a centuries-old tradition of oral poetry, they were likely written down in the late eighth or early seventh century BC. The use of these epics as historical sources has been a topic of debate since antiquity and remains controversial. The question is whether they reflect a real society and, if so, from when? Alternatively, do they represent the values and norms of later ancient Greeks, who viewed their own era in contrast to a romanticized “age of heroes”?
700-490 BC
Hesiod, a key figure at the dawn of the Archaic Age around 700 BC, authored two distinct texts: the “Theogony” and the “Works and Days.” While both are lengthy poems written in epic meter, like Homer’s “Iliad” and “Odyssey,” their content diverges significantly from each other and from Homer. The “Theogony” delves into the origins of the Greek gods and the creation of the universe, whereas the “Works and Days” is more grounded in Hesiod’s contemporary world, directly addressing social issues of his time.
Poets of the Archaic Age, whose works fall under the broad category of lyric poetry, covered a wide array of themes. They ranted against enemies, praised gods, debated politics, and expressed their anguish over unrequited love. Despite being fragmentary, these poems offer valuable insights into the political, social, and intellectual dynamics of the seventh and sixth centuries BC.
However, the Archaic Age is almost like a prehistoric era in terms of historical writings. There’s a lack of historical documents from this period. Fifth-century historians like Herodotus and Thucydides provide substantial information about the early city-states, notably Athens and Sparta. While sources for early Athens are relatively scarce, they are not as limited as those for Sparta. A fortuitous discovery of a papyrus in Egypt revealed part of “The Athenian Constitution,” attributed to Aristotle or his students. This work, along with Plutarch’s “Life of Solon,” includes excerpts from the poetry of Solon, the earliest source we have on Athenian society.
Our understanding of early Sparta and its institutions largely comes from later writers, especially the fourth-century historian Xenophon and the biographer Plutarch. Since the Spartans left few written records and later accounts often either idealized or criticized their culture, historians face a significant challenge in distinguishing the real Sparta from the fictional one.
490-323 BC
The Classical period of Greece, stretching from the Greeks’ triumph at the Battle of Marathon in 490 BC to the death of Alexander the Great, is one of the most well-documented eras in ancient Greek history. This period’s sources are not only abundant but also diverse, originating from across the eastern Mediterranean, far beyond Greece itself.
The Histories of Herodotus, dating from around 485-420 BC, explore the causes of wars between Greeks and non-Greeks, tracing a series of misunderstandings and offenses. Herodotus offers a wealth of information, particularly about the Persian Wars and the dynamics between Greek city-states, with a focus on Athens and Sparta.
Thucydides, who lived around 460-395 BC, is the primary source for the Peloponnesian War between Athens and Sparta. He aimed for accuracy in his “History of the Peloponnesian War,” drawing on contemporary documents and eyewitness accounts. Yet, like all historians, Thucydides’ narrative reflects his own interpretations and judgments. Xenophon, around 428-354 BC, continued where Thucydides left off, extending the historical narrative to 362 BC. Other fourth-century historians on these events are known through the works of Plutarch and Diodorus.
During this time, marked by war and intermittent peace, culture in Athens, particularly in poetry, philosophy, and the visual arts, thrived. The surviving tragedies of Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides, along with the comedies of Aristophanes and Menander, offer glimpses into Athenian life. While not direct reflections of society, these dramas, especially the tragedies, often reveal contemporary societal concerns through mythological plots and characters. Aristophanes’ comedies, known for their satire and parody of public figures, provide insights into what entertained Athenian audiences.
Philosophers like Plato (428-348 BC) and Aristotle (384-322 BC) voiced their critiques of democracy, proposing new governmental models. Their works challenge and redefine concepts like liberty and equality, reflecting intellectual debates over democracy’s viability.
In the realm of oratory, influential speeches by figures like Lysias, Andocides, Isocrates, and Demosthenes shed light on various facets of Athenian life in the fourth century. These speeches, crafted for legal and political contexts, were designed to impress and persuade, often embellishing facts for rhetorical effect. Demosthenes, particularly noted for his “Philippics” against Philip II of Macedon, reflects the period’s political tensions.
Thus, the Classical period offers a rich tapestry of sources, from historical accounts to literary works and philosophical treatises, each contributing to our understanding of this pivotal era in Greek history.
323-30 BC
Alexander the Great’s conquests, which stretched to the borders of India, have been a subject of immense interest, but the literature on him is surprisingly fragmented. After his death in 323 BC, numerous books were written, yet today we only have fragments. Five ancient biographies, including Plutarch’s “Life of Alexander,” written three to five hundred years after Alexander’s time, are our primary sources. However, these accounts are influenced by the perspectives and biases of their own eras.
Similarly, the sources detailing the successors of Alexander, who ruled over different regions of his vast empire, are sparse. The main account we have is from Diodorus, a first-century BC historian, which covers the latter part of the fourth century. Beyond that, only bits and pieces from later writings provide some insights into the period following Alexander’s reign.
On a brighter note, there is a wealth of information regarding daily life and the functioning of the Hellenistic kingdoms, especially in Egypt. Here, a plethora of inscriptions and thousands of documents on papyrus have been preserved. These materials, encompassing everything from private letters to legal documents like marriage contracts, wills, and tax records, offer a rich view of urban and village life in Hellenistic times.
Philosophically, this era saw the emergence of Stoicism and Epicureanism, though our understanding of these schools comes from later sources. These philosophies provided guidance on dealing with the cultural and geographical vastness of the Hellenistic world.
Hellenistic poets like Callimachus, Theocritus, and Apollonius Rhodius grappled with this new world in their works. Their poetry often reflects a dual impulse: to reshape the past to meet the needs of a complex, culturally diverse present, while also striving to preserve historical authenticity. This tension between reinterpretation and preservation is a hallmark of the literary output of this period.
The Physical Context: The Land of Greece
The material and written sources of ancient Greek history are only part of the larger narrative. The natural environment of Greece – its landscape, climate, and resources – played a crucial role in shaping Greek life and social development. Hellas, the Greek homeland, encompasses the southern Balkan peninsula and numerous islands in the Aegean Sea, some closer to Anatolia (modern Turkey) than to the Greek mainland. Crete, the largest island, situated between the Greek mainland and North Africa, is a place rich in myth and legend and plays a significant role in early Greek history.
Geographically, Greece, roughly the size of England or the U.S. state of Alabama, is characterized by a rugged landscape with mountains covering about 75% of the land. Only around 30% of the land is cultivable, and a mere 20% is considered good agricultural land. The terrain features many narrow coastal plains and upland valleys, with mountains that are steep and craggy, making overland travel difficult in ancient times and leading to some isolation of communities.
Sea travel was often the most efficient means of transportation, particularly in the island-dotted southern mainland and Aegean Sea. The proximity of the coast and the series of islands facilitated maritime voyages. Despite rugged coastlines, there were safe landfalls and harbors, which became crucial trade hubs, linking Greece to the Near East and Egypt. Given Greece’s limited natural resources, particularly in metals crucial for tools and weapons, trade was essential, propelling the Greeks to become skilled seafarers and engage with other civilizations.
The Mediterranean climate of Greece is semi-arid, featuring hot, dry summers and cool, moist winters, with regional variations. The western part of the mainland receives more rainfall than the east, and the Aegean islands are relatively drier. This climate allowed for outdoor activities most of the year. The soil, though rocky, is fertile in the plains, and terracing on hillsides helped in agriculture. Over time, deforestation for shipbuilding and other uses led to a scarcity of wood, especially in populous areas.
Water resources in Greece are limited, with few perennial rivers and minimal large-scale irrigation, making farming reliant on rainfall. The variability of weather, from droughts to torrential rains, and the unpredictability of the Aegean Sea, with its sudden storms, made life in ancient Greece challenging and at the mercy of natural elements. This reliance on and vulnerability to nature is reflected in the Greek pantheon, where gods often personify natural forces.
This overview of Greece’s land and resources highlights the diversity in local landscapes and micro-climates, affecting the quality of farmland, pastureland, and available raw materials. While providing a modest living for most farmers, the land offered no guarantees against natural adversities, underscoring the ancient Greeks’ deep connection with and reverence for nature.
Food and Livestock
The Greek diet, sustained by the “Mediterranean triad” of grain, grapes, and olives, was both simple and nutritious. Bread, wine, and olive oil were the cornerstones of their daily meals. The Greek soil was conducive to growing grains like wheat, barley, and oats. Olive trees and grapevines, native to the region, thrived in the Greek climate. The diet was diversified with legumes, vegetables, fruits (particularly figs), and nuts. While cheese, meat, and fish provided protein and fat, meat was more of a luxury, typically reserved for feasts and festivals. Unlike some cultures, the Greeks seldom consumed butter or milk, preferring water and diluted wine as their main beverages. Honey served as a sweetener, and various spices added flavor to their food. Though it might seem repetitive by modern standards, this diet was well-balanced and healthy.
Animal husbandry complemented agriculture without competing for resources. Sheep and goats grazed on lands unsuitable for farming, also contributing manure. They were valuable for their wool, cheese, meat, and skins. Pigs and poultry were also raised for food. Larger domesticated animals, such as horses and cattle, held a special economic and social role. Oxen and mules were essential for plowing and transportation, marking a farmer’s wealth and status. However, large-scale cattle and horse ranching required extensive grazing lands and was generally feasible only for the wealthy. Cattle symbolized wealth and status, being used for sacrifices and feasts, while horses were seen as markers of high rank due to their cost and utility for riding and chariot pulling.
This agricultural and pastoral lifestyle remained largely unchanged throughout antiquity. The majority of Greeks were small-scale farmers, with as many as 80 to 90 percent of male city-state citizens involved in agriculture during peak population periods in the fifth to third centuries BC. Women primarily managed household tasks. This agrarian basis of society influenced every aspect of Greek life, from politics to warfare to religious practices. The attachment to their land was a strong unifying force within Greek city-states, as reflected in the willingness of citizen-farmers to defend their “ancestral earth,” a term used by Homer. Conversely, a continual source of social tension was the disparity in land ownership, creating divisions between those with abundant land and those with little or none.
