Kabbalah, a form of Jewish mysticism that gained popularity in the Middle Ages, has evolved into a broader term encompassing all Jewish mystical thought. The term itself means “that which is received” and includes esoteric traditions dating back to biblical times, still practiced today. It delves into topics like the world’s creation, God’s nature, mystical experiences, the messianic era, and the afterlife. Essentially, Kabbalah represents the Jewish pursuit of direct divine knowledge beyond intellectual understanding.
Historically, Kabbalah was widely practiced until modern times, with restrictions on initiates’ age and piety. It involved Talmudic explorations, stories of divine encounters, creation myths, messianic beliefs, and pietistic rituals influencing Judaism. Following the Jewish Enlightenment, Kabbalah lost favor among secular Jews in Europe, seen as outdated. However, there has been a recent resurgence in interest, attracting both secular and religious followers, including outreach to non-Jewish individuals.
Bible Origins
The origins of Kabbalah can be traced back to biblical times, evolving over centuries into a complex mystical tradition that continues to captivate spiritual seekers worldwide.
The Hebrew Bible does not explicitly mention a systematic form of mysticism, but it does contain instances of magic and divination. For example, Moses performs magical acts like turning a staff into a snake, Jacob has divine visions, and King David dances in an ecstatic trance. The tradition of prophecy, involving the communication of divine messages, can also be seen as a mystical practice.
One of the most significant mystical themes in the Bible is Ezekiel’s vision of God’s throne-chariot. This enigmatic and symbolic imagery led to intense interpretation and analysis, giving rise to early Jewish mystical traditions such as the maaseh hamerkabah (work of the Chariot) and maaseh bereshit (work of the Beginning), which explore the creation of the world.
Talmudic & Merkabah Mysticism
Talmudic Merkabah Mysticism, considered the first systematic Jewish mysticism, likely developed during the Second Temple period and reached its full form in the Talmudic era. It centers on Ezekiel’s vision, with references in the Talmud to rabbis discussing the secrets of God’s chariot, though these secrets were kept confidential and only shared orally with select students well-versed in Jewish law and theology.
The restrictions mentioned are indirectly explained in the well-known story of the four rabbis who entered the garden. In this tale, one rabbi died, one went mad, one became a heretic, and one emerged in peace after beholding a divine vision. This story is seen as a warning about the dangers of mystical visions of angels and God’s divine court.
Although it is uncertain if these stories refer to a specific mystical tradition, it is probable that they do. Scholars believe that what is now known as merkabah mysticism originated around the same period. This mystical practice involves descending through intense meditation into the seven halls of the divine palace, culminating in visions of God’s court and throne-chariot. Many respected rabbis were said to engage in this form of mysticism, leading to the collection of a significant amount of literature on these spiritual journeys.
Sefer Yetzirah
The Sefer Yetzirah, also known as the Book of Creation, is considered the first proto-Kabbalistic work. Its exact date of origin is debated, but it likely emerged after the Talmudic period and was definitely in existence by the 10th century CE. Unlike earlier works focusing on the divine chariot, the Sefer Yetzirah delves into the creation of the world. This concise and enigmatic text describes creation occurring through God’s utterance of the Hebrew alphabet letters, aided by ten sefirot or numbers with vaguely anthropomorphic qualities.
The Sefer Yetzirah is regarded as the starting point of Kabbalah as it is recognized today. While later medieval works surpassed it in complexity and length, the Sefer Yetzirah sparked extensive mystical and philosophical contemplation, marking the initial widespread and accepted systematic mysticism within the Jewish community.
The Sefer Yetzirah was followed by the Sefer HaBahir or Book of Brightness, which further developed the concept of the sefirot as vessels for divine energy reflecting aspects of the Godhead in the lower worlds. The combination of these two texts led to the creation of the canonical Kabbalistic text, the Sefer HaZohar.
The Sefer HaZohar, also known as the Book of Radiance, is considered the most important text in Kabbalah. Initially attributed to ancient Rabbi Simeon Bar Yochai, modern scholars believe it was primarily written by Spanish mystic Moshe de Leon or a group of similar mystics whose ideas were compiled and published by de Leon.
- Incense: A Unique Product in Roman Trade
- Love, Sex, and Marriage in Ancient Rome: Routines and Rituals
- The Dark Age of Ancient Greece: Decline and Transformation
The Zohar
The Zohar is a massive work over 1,000 pages long, written in a pseudo-Aramaic dialect. It presents an epic cosmology that became central to Jewish mysticism. Key concepts include the Tree of Life and the ten sefirot, representing different attributes of God such as wisdom, mercy, and strength. These sefirot are seen as distinct from the unknowable essence of God, called the ain sof, while also symbolizing parts of the divine body like hands and feet.
The Zohar‘s cosmology includes an erotic element, where the sefirot of yesod and malchut symbolize the penis and vagina, portraying God as an intersex being engaging in creative autoeroticism. This concept influenced later forms of Kabbalah. The belief that events in the material world impact the divine realm and vice versa is crucial in Jewish mysticism. Humanity plays an active role in influencing the sefirot world through study, rituals, prayer, and mystical practices.
While not as prominent as in later Kabbalah, the Zohar hints at messianic elements, suggesting a flaw in divine architecture due to human sin and the exile of the shekhina and Israel. This flaw can be repaired through messianic tikkun, aided by following Jewish commandments, good deeds, and Torah study. These ideas became central in Jewish mysticism over the following centuries.
The Ari
The Zohar’s teachings greatly impacted Kabbalah, with Rabbi Isaac Luria, known as the Ari, developing a successful mystical tradition in the 16th century. The Ari’s interpretation of the Zohar revolutionized Kabbalistic thought and practice, becoming widely accepted in the Jewish world.
Luria, who had a mixed Ashkenazi and Sephardi background, brought together the two main Jewish schools of thought and their mystical traditions. He was part of a group of Kabbalists in Safed, Galilee. Luria’s mystical system was based on the Zohar but also included original teachings he claimed to have received through spiritual communication with long-deceased mystics in the region. Although he didn’t write much himself, his teachings were recorded by his students, particularly Haim Vital, who published the most influential version.
In simple terms, Luria’s Kabbalah suggested that during creation, the infinite God (ain sof) contracted to make space for the world. This contraction, known as tzimtzum, allowed vessels of sefirot and divine light to flow in. The vessels couldn’t contain this energy, leading to their shattering and the creation of klippot or shards forming our flawed material world. Despite this, remnants of the original divine light remained in this realm. This grim view of creation was connected to the idea of galut or exile. Luria believed that not only were the Jewish people in exile, but also God’s presence in the shekhina and even God himself along with all creation.
Luria’s Kabbalah, at this stage, adopts a deeply messianic nature by incorporating the Zohar’s concepts of tikkun and the elevation of divine sparks through mystical traditions, religious studies, and rituals. Luria suggested the coming of a messianic era where the soul of the messiah would complete its journey through multiple cycles of reincarnation known as the gilgul cycle. The incarnated messiah would then elevate the final sparks, thereby finishing the restoration of the broken material world, leading to its transformation into the spiritual realm. This process would not only mend creation but also restore God himself.
Luria’s Kabbalah gained more popularity than the Zohar, resonating with the deep yearning for redemption within the Jewish community. However, its strong messianic focus unsettled traditional Judaism, which historically aimed to suppress rather than encourage messianic sentiments.
Sabbatai Zevi
The fervor for messianism sparked by the Zohar and Lurianic Kabbalah eventually centered around Sabbatai Zevi, a Turkish mystic. Zevi, born in 1626 CE in Izmir, possessed great charisma and knowledge of Kabbalah but also exhibited erratic and offensive behavior, possibly due to mental instability. Despite being recognized for his charismatic personality and mystical knowledge, Zevi’s unpredictable actions led him to declare himself the messiah during moments of intense emotional outbursts. Following these episodes, he would experience deep regret and introspection, leading to his expulsion from the local Jewish community due to his behavior.
In 1663, Sabbatai Zevi traveled to the land of Israel where Nathan of Gaza, a young and talented thinker, declared him as the promised messiah. Influenced by Lurianic mysticism, much of the Jewish community eagerly accepted Zevi as their new hope and pledged loyalty to him. However, Zevi was later arrested and imprisoned by the Ottoman authorities. The Turkish Sultan gave him a choice between death or converting to Islam, and Zevi chose the latter, causing his followers to lose faith in him.
Despite the shock and disappointment felt by most of the Jewish world due to Zevi’s apostasy, small groups of followers continued to support him. Nathan of Gaza remained faithful and developed a theology that explained Zevi’s actions as necessary for raising divine sparks and bringing about spiritual repair, known as tikkun, through descending to the lowest levels of spiritual impurity.
This concept, known as “hamitzvah shbaah baverah” or redemption through sin, was followed by some Sabbateans who converted to Islam while secretly practicing Zevi’s teachings. One such group, the Donmeh, still exists today.
Hasidism also emerged during this time period.
Hasidism
Following Sabbatai Zevi’s betrayal, the messianic concept was once again repressed. However, Lurianic Kabbalah continued to be popular. Hasidism, a movement that emerged in the 18th century CE, gained more success than its predecessors like Hasidic Judaism. The movement was founded by an itinerant mystic and faith healer known as the Baal Shem Tov, meaning “owner of the good name.” Similar to a Zen monk, he traveled across Jewish communities in Eastern Europe, preaching a pietistic and populist doctrine. This doctrine focused on experiencing God emotionally rather than following the legalistic approach of the traditional establishment.
Hasidism promoted the ecstatic joy of celebration and the concept of devekut, which involves consciously channeling prayer and ritual to create a direct mystical connection with God. Unlike the traditional emphasis on solemnity, Hasidism highlighted joy, emotion, and the belief that every Jew could attain spiritual enlightenment and ecstasy without the need for a rabbinical or mystical elite.
The Baal Shem Tov attracted a large following, forming schools or rabbinical courts in Jewish communities. The prominent followers were known as tzaddikim, or righteous ones. While similar to rabbis as teachers and community leaders, tzaddikim were seen as direct channels of divine connection to their followers. Although not claiming to be messiahs, they embraced messianic elements from Zohar and Lurianic Kabbalah.
Hasidism incorporated concepts like klippot, tikkun, and divine sparks into its theology, believing in repairing broken vessels and redeeming Israel and the world through ecstatic experiences, adherence to laws, and individual prayer.
Despite facing opposition from traditionalists called mitnagdim, Hasidism became popular. Though greatly affected by the Holocaust, it demonstrated resilience, experiencing growth in the United States and Israel in recent years.
Modern Kabbalah
In contemporary times, the Kabbalah has experienced fluctuations in popularity and rejection. During the Jewish Enlightenment in the 18th and 19th centuries, the Kabbalah was criticized as irrational by emerging secular and rationalist movements within the Jewish community. However, by the 20th century, it gained recognition as a significant religious, theological, and sociological aspect of Jewish history. Scholars like Gershom Scholem and Moshe Idel contributed to the academic study of Kabbalah.
Today, traditional Jews continue to practice aspects of Kabbalah, such as using magical amulets and singing mystical hymns like Lecha Dodi. Many followers engage in these practices without fully understanding the mystical concepts behind them. While belief in the messianic idea persists, it is not as widespread among the Jewish community.
Interestingly, a new trend has emerged where Kabbalah is taught to non-Jews for the first time. The Kabbalah Centre, known for celebrity members like Madonna, blends traditional Kabbalah with New Age beliefs, attracting individuals with no prior connection to Judaism. With the current interest in mysticism and secret knowledge, the adaptable nature of Kabbalah suggests it will continue to hold a significant, albeit sometimes overlooked, role in Jewish spirituality and thought in the future.
