1. Book of Songs (Shijing)
The Book of Songs is the earliest collection of Chinese poetry, compiled over a span of more than 500 years, from the early Western Zhou period to the mid-Spring and Autumn period. It contains 311 poems, including 6 titled “Shengshi,” which have titles but no content. During the pre-Qin era, it was simply called Shi or, because of the approximate number, Three Hundred Poems. In the Western Han dynasty, it was revered as a Confucian classic and became known as Shijing, a name still used today. The collection is divided into three sections: Feng, Ya, and Song.
- Feng refers to regional songs or folk ballads, covering 15 areas such as “Zhou Nan,” “Shao Nan,” “Qin,” “Bin,” and others, corresponding to present-day Shanxi, Shaanxi, Henan, Hebei, Shandong, and northern Hubei.
- Ya consists of courtly music, performed at banquets or by nobility during state functions. It is further divided into Daya (31 poems) and Xiaoya (74 poems), totaling 105 poems.
- Song includes ritual hymns used in worship ceremonies, split into three groups: Zhou Song (31 poems), Lu Song (4 poems), and Shang Song (5 poems), making 40 in total.
The Book of Songs employs three main literary techniques: fu (straightforward description), bi (analogy or metaphor), and xing (evocative imagery to introduce a theme). These, combined with the divisions of Feng, Ya, and Song, form the “Six Principles” of the work.
The Book of Songs vividly portrays life from the Western Zhou to the Spring and Autumn period, depicting the rise and decline of slave society in China. Some poems are historical narratives, like Sheng Min, Gong Liu, and Da Ming in Daya, chronicling the Zhou tribe’s origins and state-building. Others, such as Shuo Shu and Fa Tan in Wei Feng, criticize the greed and parasitic nature of the slave-owning class, resonating with calls for resistance. Poems like He Cao Bu Huang and Dong Shan express the soldiers’ longing for home and sorrow over warfare, highlighting the hardships imposed by military service. Still, others celebrate labor and depict daily life, while love poems capture the joy, longing, and societal pressures faced by young lovers.
2. Songs of Chu (Chuci)
The term “Chuci” first appears in Records of the Grand Historian. By the early Han dynasty, it referred generally to the songs of the Chu region but later became a name for the poetic style pioneered by Qu Yuan of the Warring States period. At the end of the Western Han dynasty, Liu Xiang compiled works by Qu Yuan, Song Yu, and others influenced by their style into the anthology Chuci, consisting of 16 pieces. Qu Yuan’s Li Sao became the representative work of this collection, which is also known as “Sao Poetry.”
Songs of Chu is the second major poetry anthology in Chinese literature, following the Book of Songs. It is also the first collection of romantic poetry, featuring imaginative and passionate writing. The poems use the local dialects and rhythms of the Chu region (modern Hunan, Hubei, and western Anhui) and vividly depict the landscapes and culture of Chu, as noted by Song scholar Huang Bosi. The structure of Chuci is more dynamic than the simpler, four-character verse of the Book of Songs, incorporating regional dialects and rhythms that enhance the emotional complexity of the poetry.
3. Selections of Refined Literature (Wenxuan)
Compiled by Xiao Tong during the Southern Liang dynasty, Wenxuan, also called Zhaoming Wenxuan, is the earliest existing collection of Chinese poetry and prose. It spans 30 volumes, featuring over 700 pieces from 130 writers, covering works from pre-Qin to the Liang dynasty. The collection includes poetry, essays, and rhapsodies, organized into 38 categories, with poetry and rhapsodies being the most numerous.
Xiao Tong arranged the poems and essays by subject, reflecting a detailed understanding of literary genres and development. However, some later critics argued that the categorization was overly complex. The compilation focuses on works with refined and elegant language, emphasizing literary beauty and stylistic sophistication over philosophical content. It distinguishes literature from classic texts and historical works, setting a precedent for literary scholarship.
Wenxuan became an essential reference for scholars in the Tang and early Song dynasties, as poetry and rhapsodies were integral to the imperial examination system. Its significance in literary history remains, forming the basis of the specialized study known as “Xuan Studies.” Xiao Tong, posthumously known as Prince Zhaoming, passed away before ascending the throne, and his collection has been cherished for its preservation of classical literature.
4. Anthology of Ancient Poems (Gushi Ji)
Gushi Ji, also called Shiji, is a comprehensive anthology of poetry from the pre-Qin to Sui dynasties, compiled by Feng Weina in the Ming dynasty. The collection, completed in 1557 during the 36th year of the Jiajing reign, spans 156 volumes and is organized into four sections: Preface Collection, Main Collection, Supplementary Collection, and Separate Collection.
- The Preface Collection, with 10 volumes, contains pre-Qin poems, divided into 13 categories such as songs, ballads, and miscellaneous verses. Each poem is annotated with its source and historical context.
- The Main Collection, consisting of 130 volumes, compiles poetry from the Han to Sui dynasties in chronological order. Each era’s poetry is arranged by emperor, well-known poets, minor authors, folk songs, and anonymous works.
- The Supplementary Collection, with 4 volumes, includes poems from ancient stories and notes about ghosts and spirits.
- The Separate Collection, spanning 12 volumes, contains poetry critiques and fragmented lines that cannot form complete poems.
Despite its breadth, Gushi Ji has some inaccuracies and inconsistencies. The Qing scholar Feng Shu wrote Corrections to Shiji to address errors. Various versions include Feng Weina’s original edition and reprints from the late Ming period.
Feng Weina (1512–1572), courtesy name Ruyan, was a scholar from Shandong who served as a high official during the Jiajing reign. He was skilled in poetry and literature and compiled several significant works.
5. Source of Ancient Poetry (Gushi Yuan)
Gushi Yuan, compiled by Qing scholar Shen Deqian, is a notable anthology of pre-Tang poetry. The collection, spanning 14 volumes, includes over 700 poems from the pre-Qin to Sui periods, covering both formal and folk poetry. The anthology is divided into volumes dedicated to different dynasties, with poems arranged thematically.
Shen Deqian (1673–1769), courtesy name Queshi and sobriquet Guiyu, was a prominent poet and critic from Suzhou. He gained recognition for his poetry and served as a high-ranking official. His works, including Anthology of Tang Poetry and Anthology of Ming Poetry, greatly influenced the Qing poetic tradition.
6. Selected Ancient Poems (Gushi Xuan)
Gushi Xuan, compiled by Qing poet Wang Shizhen, is a selection of five- and seven-character ancient-style poems from the Han to Yuan dynasties. Wang, a leading literary figure, aimed to showcase the evolution of poetic forms and provide a model for literary composition. The anthology contains 32 volumes: 17 volumes of five-character poems from the Han to Tang, and 15 volumes of seven-character poems from the pre-Qin to Yuan periods.
Wang emphasized the poetic theories of “source and transformation,” including almost all Han poems while being more selective for later periods. The anthology has been criticized for omitting major poets like Du Fu and Bai Juyi and for misattributing some works.
Widely used editions include the Zhilan Hall edition from the Qianlong reign and a punctuated version by Shanghai Ancient Books Publishing House.
Wang Shizhen (1634–1711), also known as Wang Yuyang, was a distinguished poet and scholar from Shandong. He was known for his literary theories and refined style, contributing significantly to the Qing poetic tradition. His works, which include thousands of poems and numerous writings on literature and history, remain influential.
7. New Songs from the Jade Terrace (Yutai Xinyong)
New Songs from the Jade Terrace is the third major anthology of Chinese poetry, following the Book of Songs and Songs of Chu. It collects works from the Western Han to the Liang dynasty of the Southern Dynasties. Traditionally, it is attributed to Xu Ling, who compiled it during the mid-Liang period. The collection includes 769 poems, organized into 10 volumes: eight volumes of five-character poems, one volume of long poems, and one volume of four-line five-character poems.
According to Xu Ling’s preface, the anthology focuses on “romantic and sentimental poetry,” highlighting love and emotions between men and women. Compared to Wenxuan, it has a narrower scope but a unique emphasis, excluding grand odes and courtly praise poems. Instead, it features straightforward language and includes folk songs, nursery rhymes from the Han period, and even long narrative poems like Peacock Flying Southeast. The collection also emphasizes short, rhythmic verses that later influenced the development of five-character quatrains in the Tang dynasty.
New Songs from the Jade Terrace also preserves works by female poets and pieces from notable authors such as Cao Zhi’s Poem of the Abandoned Wife and Yu Xin’s Seventh Night Poem. The anthology provides insight into the poetic evolution toward structured and refined forms that would define later styles. Surviving editions include the early Ming movable type edition and the reprint from the Sibu Congkan collection.
Xu Ling (507–583), courtesy name Xiaomu, was a poet and literary figure from Shandong. Known for his ornate and elegant “palace style” poetry, he served as a high-ranking official in both the Liang and Chen courts. His literary achievements, alongside Yu Xin’s, earned them the title “Xu-Yu Duo.”
8. Anthology of Yuefu Poems (Yuefu Shiji)
The Anthology of Yuefu Poems is the most comprehensive collection of ancient Chinese Yuefu lyrics, compiled by Guo Maoqian of the Song dynasty. It consists of 100 volumes and contains over 5,000 songs and lyrics, covering works from the Han, Wei, and Six Dynasties to the Tang and Five Dynasties, with some pieces tracing back to pre-Qin times. The anthology is divided into 12 major categories based on musical themes, such as Temple Hymns, Banquet Songs, Drum and Wind Music, and Folk Songs.
The Anthology of Yuefu Poems organizes poems by melody and theme, with a general introduction for each category and explanations for individual songs. This arrangement preserves the connection between poetry and music, highlighting the influence of folk songs on literary poetry and illustrating how certain melodies inspired subsequent poetic works. The anthology includes extensive historical notes on the origins, performance practices, and instruments associated with each piece, preserving valuable details about ancient musical traditions.
The collection has some inconsistencies and errors, as noted by later critics, who point out that some literary poems were mistakenly classified as Yuefu songs. Nevertheless, the anthology remains a foundational resource for studying both literature and music. Important editions include the late Ming Jiguge edition, the Qing reprint, and the Zhonghua Book Company’s annotated edition from 1980.
Guo Maoqian, courtesy name Decan, was a scholar from Shandong. His meticulous research and detailed annotations in the Anthology of Yuefu Poems have made the work a crucial reference for scholars of Chinese literary and musical history.
9. Ancient Ballads and Proverbs (Gu Yao Yan)
Ancient Ballads and Proverbs is a comprehensive collection of ancient Chinese folk songs and proverbs, compiled by Du Wenlan of the Qing dynasty. The work spans 100 volumes, consisting of 85 main volumes, 14 appendices, and a commentary volume. Prefaced by Liu Yusong, the anthology compiles folk wisdom from antiquity to the Ming dynasty, making it a monumental reference in the genre. The proverbs cover agricultural activities, weather predictions, regional customs, and various social experiences.
Many of the proverbs and ballads are tied to historical figures and events, including praises, satirical criticisms, or expressions related to peasant uprisings. Some children’s rhymes, often prophetic, reflect the rise and fall of dynasties and forecast natural disasters or societal upheavals. The anthology distinguishes between simple songs and those integrated with music, focusing on the former, and includes both elegant phrases and widely circulated sayings.
Du Wenlan (1815–1881), courtesy name Xiaofang, was from Xiushui, Zhejiang. He held various official positions, including salt transport commissioner of Lianghuai, and was praised for his administrative skills. An accomplished scholar and poet, he authored several works, including Gu Yao Yan, Notes on Song Lyrics, and Accounts of the Suppression of the Guangdong Rebellion.
10. Anthology of Ancient Writings (Gu Wen Yuan)
The Anthology of Ancient Writings is a collection of ancient prose and poetry, with the compiler unknown. It is said to be an old Tang manuscript discovered by Sun Zhu (1032–1080) of the Northern Song dynasty in a Buddhist temple. The anthology includes over 260 pieces from the Zhou to the Southern Qi dynasty, which were not included in historical records or Wenxuan. In 1179, Han Yuanji reorganized it into nine volumes, and in 1232, Zhang Qiao expanded and annotated it into 21 volumes.
Despite some inconsistencies, the anthology preserves rare pre-Tang literary works. The extant versions include the nine-volume Song edition and the 21-volume Zhang Qiao edition, with modern reprints available in collections such as the Sibu Congkan.
Qing scholar Sun Xingyan (1753–1818) later compiled additional works from inscriptions and records into Sequel to the Anthology of Ancient Writings, spanning 20 volumes and annotating sources.
11. Forest of Literature (Wen Guan Ci Lin)
Forest of Literature is a massive anthology of poetry and prose compiled by Xu Jingzong during the reign of Emperor Gaozong of the Tang dynasty. Completed in 658, it remained a well-guarded imperial collection, and because of its vast scope—consisting of a thousand volumes—it was not widely disseminated. By the Song dynasty, most of it had been lost, with only a few scattered copies in Japan. These were reprinted in various editions in the late 20th century, including the Yue Ya Tang, Gu Yi, and Shi Yuan collections. In 1969, the Japanese Classical Research Association published a comprehensive edition based on surviving copies.
Luo Guowei, a professor at Sichuan University specializing in classical Chinese literature, later compiled and annotated Forest of Literature, publishing his research on the text. His work preserves valuable literary and historical resources.
12. Essence of Literature (Wen Yuan Ying Hua)
One of the four great literary collections of the Northern Song dynasty, Essence of Literature was compiled by Li Fang and over 20 scholars under Emperor Taizong’s orders. The compilation began in 982 and was completed in 986. It features nearly 20,000 pieces from the Liang dynasty to the Five Dynasties period, organized into 39 categories such as rhapsodies, poems, letters, and decrees, with numerous subcategories.
The anthology preserves a significant number of documents, including decrees, memorials, and inscriptions, many of which were sourced from rare manuscripts. It has been a crucial resource for compiling later collections like Complete Tang Poems and Complete Tang Prose. The existing version, revised during the reign of Emperor Xiaozong, corrects errors from the original text, with the Zhonghua Book Company publishing a reprinted and annotated edition in 1966.
Despite limited circulation, Essence of Literature has been influential, with reprints produced during the Ming and Qing dynasties.
13. The Ultimate Anthology of Classical Prose (Gu Wen Guan Zhi)
The Ultimate Anthology of Classical Prose is one of the most popular collections of ancient Chinese prose, compiled during the Qing dynasty by Wu Chucai and Wu Diaohou in the 33rd year of Emperor Kangxi’s reign. The anthology includes nearly 800 classical essays, spanning from the pre-Qin period to the late Ming dynasty, and reflects the major styles and development of prose throughout these eras. It features notable works such as 34 pieces from Zuo Zhuan, 11 from Guo Yu, 3 from Gongyang Zhuan, and essays by famous writers like Han Yu, Liu Zongyuan, Ouyang Xiu, Su Shi, and Wang Anshi, totaling 222 pieces.
The selections are concise and elegant, emphasizing language that is memorable and easy to understand, making it suitable for beginners. The editors focused on classical prose but also included four pieces of parallel prose, a notable decision at the time. Unlike previous anthologies that categorized essays by type, this collection is organized chronologically, highlighting the evolution of prose. While the anthology excludes certain texts, like works from the Hundred Schools of Thought and Han Shu, and omits writings from the Liao, Jin, and Yuan periods, it remains an invaluable resource for understanding classical prose and is often compared to Three Hundred Tang Poems as a staple in traditional Chinese literature.
Wu Chucai and Wu Diaohou were uncle and nephew from Zhejiang. Wu Chucai, born Wu Chengquan, was known for his deep knowledge of classical literature and his work as a tutor. Together, they compiled The Ultimate Anthology of Classical Prose to aid students preparing for the civil service exams.
14. Collection of Noble Spirit (Qiankun Zhengqi Ji)
Collection of Noble Spirit, compiled by Gu Yuan in the Qing dynasty, is a 20-volume poetry anthology published on the eve of the Opium War. Sensing the impending crisis, Gu aimed to inspire patriotism and moral courage by gathering poems from loyal and righteous figures throughout history. The collection features works by over 300 historical figures, ranging from the early Zhou to the late Ming dynasty, with each entry providing biographical details and commentary.
The anthology’s goal was to promote values like integrity and heroism, drawing from sources such as Gushi Ji, Complete Tang Poems, and Song Poetry Chronicles. Gu Yuan also helped compile a more extensive version, sometimes referred to as the “Large Collection,” which includes essays, rhapsodies, and miscellaneous writings.
Gu Yuan (1799–1851), courtesy name Lilan, was a scholar and bibliophile from Suzhou. He dedicated his life to preserving and studying ancient texts and built extensive private libraries such as “Huai Gu Shu Wu” and “Yi Hai Lou.”
15. Anthology of Classical Prose and Essays (Gu Wen Ci Lei Zan)
Compiled by Yao Nai during the Qing dynasty, Anthology of Classical Prose and Essays is a collection that focuses on prose from the “Eight Great Prose Masters of the Tang and Song” while also including works from the Warring States, Qin, and Han periods, as well as essays by Ming and Qing writers. The anthology spans 74 volumes and categorizes roughly 700 essays into 13 sections: arguments, prefaces, memorials, letters, dedications, decrees, biographies, inscriptions, miscellaneous notes, admonitions, eulogies, rhapsodies, and mourning texts.
Yao Nai’s anthology became a cornerstone of the Tongcheng School’s literary theory, emphasizing clarity, simplicity, and moral integrity in prose. The work was widely studied and praised for its educational value. Later scholars like Wang Xianqian and Li Shuchang compiled supplementary volumes, adding essays from later Qing writers.
Yao Nai (1731–1815), courtesy name Ji Chuan and sobriquet Menggu, was a prominent scholar from Tongcheng, Anhui. Known as one of the “Three Ancestors of Tongcheng,” he influenced classical prose writing and taught at prestigious academies. His collected works and literary theories continue to be studied for their impact on Chinese prose.
16. Anthology of Classics, Histories, and Various Writings (Jingshi Baijia Zhaochao)
Compiled by Zeng Guofan, Anthology of Classics, Histories, and Various Writings is a 26-volume collection of ancient Chinese prose. It is organized into 11 categories: treatises, rhapsodies, prefaces, edicts, memorials, letters, eulogies, biographies, records, regulations, and miscellaneous notes.
This anthology became widely known from the late Qing period to the early Republic of China and had a significant social impact. Before its compilation, two influential collections of classical prose existed: The Ultimate Anthology of Classical Prose by Wu Chucai and Wu Diaohou, and Anthology of Classical Prose and Essays by Yao Nai. While these collections were successful, Zeng’s anthology distinguished itself with its academic depth and comprehensive scope. Unlike The Ultimate Anthology of Classical Prose, which focused on elegant, easy-to-read texts, Zeng’s work incorporated essays that combined literary value with political and philosophical insights, emphasizing practical governance and economic matters.
Anthology of Classics, Histories, and Various Writings also added new categories, such as historical records, to broaden the scope of selected writings, reflecting Zeng’s pragmatic approach to learning. By emphasizing the intersection of literature and governance, the anthology offers insights into societal values, statecraft, and economic policies across dynasties.
Zeng Guofan (1811–1872), a scholar and statesman from Xiangxiang, Hunan, is remembered for his role in organizing the Xiang Army and suppressing the Taiping Rebellion. He was a leading figure of the late Qing, known for his literary contributions and influence on subsequent generations of scholars and politicians. His collected writings include Collected Works of Zeng Wenzheng Gong, and he established the “Xiangxiang School” of classical prose, drawing inspiration from Tongcheng literary traditions.
17. Anthology of 103 Masters of the Han, Wei, and Six Dynasties (Han Wei Liu Chao Bai San Jia Ji)
Also known as Anthology of 103 Masters of the Han, Wei, and Six Dynasties, this extensive literary collection was compiled by Zhang Pu during the Ming dynasty and consists of 118 volumes.
Zhang Pu built upon earlier collections, such as Anthology of Seventy-two Masters by Zhang Xie and Ancient Poetry Chronicles by Feng Weina, to compile the works of 103 authors from Jia Yi of the Han dynasty to Xue Daoheng of the Sui dynasty. Each author is given a dedicated section, arranged with rhapsodies first, followed by essays and then poems. Prefaces by the compiler provide background on the authors and commentary on their works, offering insights into their literary significance and philosophies.
The collection emphasizes critical evaluation, known for its “selecting the difficult and rejecting the simple” approach. Zhang Pu expressed his views on each author, advocating for the study of the literary essence of the Han and Wei periods while criticizing the excesses of later styles, such as the ornate writing of the Southern Dynasties.
Zhang Pu (1602–1641), a prominent Ming scholar and writer, was born in Taicang, Jiangsu. Known for his dedication to classical learning, he famously destroyed and recopied his writings multiple times to improve them. A staunch advocate of the Restoration Society, he opposed political corruption and was an influential figure in the literary revival movement. His major works include Five Men’s Tombstone Epitaph and Collected Works of Seven Revisions. His anthology remains a critical reference for the study of Han, Wei, and Six Dynasties literature.
18. Complete Anthology of Writings from Antiquity to the Six Dynasties (Quan Shanggu Sandai Qin Han Sanguo Liuchao Wen)
Compiled by Yan Kejun during the Qing dynasty, this extensive anthology collects prose writings from pre-Qin times through the Six Dynasties. It draws primarily from Literary Chronicles by Mei Dingzuo and Anthology of 103 Masters of the Han, Wei, and Six Dynasties by Zhang Pu. The collection is organized into 15 sections: Writings from Antiquity, Qin Writings, Han Writings, and so on, ending with Pre-Tang Writings for unidentified authorship. Each section categorizes authors as emperors, empresses, princes, officials, eunuchs, foreign figures, and supernatural beings, among others. The work encompasses 741 volumes and features over 3,500 authors, making it the most comprehensive pre-Tang prose anthology.
Yan Kejun (1762–1843), a scholar from Zhejiang, was known for his expertise in epigraphy and textual criticism. He devoted 27 years to compiling this work, which serves as a critical resource for studying pre-Tang literature, history, religion, and language.
19. Complete Poems of the Han, Three Kingdoms, Jin, and Six Dynasties (Quan Han Sanguo Jin Nanbei Chao Shi)
This anthology, edited by Ding Fubao, is a comprehensive collection of poetry from the Han to the Sui dynasties, serving as a complement to Complete Tang Poems. It draws on Ancient Poetry Chronicles by Feng Weina and Corrections to the Poetry Chronicles by Feng Shu, organizing the poems into 54 volumes. While the collection is extensive, it lacks critical revisions and fails to include early ballads and lost poems from pre-Qin times.
Ding Fubao (1874–1952), a bibliophile and scholar from Wuxi, made significant contributions to medical and literary studies. He compiled numerous works, including Complete Poems of the Han, Three Kingdoms, Jin, and Six Dynasties, and established extensive private collections, donating thousands of books to libraries and universities.
20. Anthology of Rhapsodies through the Ages (Lidai Fu Hui)
Anthology of Rhapsodies through the Ages was compiled by Chen Yuanlong under imperial commission during the Kangxi reign. The 184-volume collection features 3,834 rhapsodies from the pre-Qin period to the Ming dynasty. It is divided into four main sections: Narrative Rhapsodies (140 volumes), Emotional and Reflective Rhapsodies (20 volumes), Fragmentary Rhapsodies (20 volumes), and Supplementary Rhapsodies (20 volumes). The narrative section covers topics like astronomy, geography, agriculture, and military affairs, while the emotional section includes themes of longing, travel, and social critique.
The anthology is notable for its comprehensive coverage and organization by subject, but it has some flaws, such as missing author names, repeated entries, and occasional misattributions.
Chen Yuanlong (1652–1736), a scholar-official from Haining, Zhejiang, held various high-ranking positions and contributed significantly to Qing literary and academic efforts. His work remains a cornerstone of Chinese rhapsody studies.
