Plutarch (c. AD 46 – after 119) was a Greek philosopher, biographer, essayist, and priest whose works have shaped the intellectual and cultural understanding of both ancient and modern civilizations. Known primarily for Parallel Lives and Moralia, Plutarch used his writings to explore character, virtue, and the moral underpinnings of leadership. This comprehensive look at his life and contributions highlights how he bridged the Greek and Roman worlds while leaving an indelible mark on philosophy and history.
Early life and education
Plutarch was born in Chaeronea, a small but historically significant town in Boeotia, Greece, about 30 kilometers from Delphi. His family was of considerable local prominence, with a long-standing reputation in the community. His name, meaning “wealthy leader,” reflected Greek aspirations for character and prosperity.
From a young age, Plutarch exhibited an insatiable appetite for learning. He studied philosophy and mathematics in Athens under Ammonius, a respected teacher of Middle Platonism, which synthesized Platonic philosophy with other schools of thought like Stoicism and Aristotelianism. This intellectual foundation deeply influenced Plutarch’s later works, where he examined ethical questions, historical events, and human nature with a nuanced philosophical lens.
Career and civic roles: From Chaeronea to Delphi
Plutarch spent much of his life balancing intellectual pursuits with civic responsibilities. He became an important figure in his hometown, serving as a magistrate and representing Chaeronea on diplomatic missions. His involvement extended to Delphi, where he became a priest at the Temple of Apollo around AD 95.
In this role, Plutarch was responsible for interpreting the oracles of the Pythia, the temple’s prophetic priestess, and organizing the Pythian Games. Delphi, which had declined from its classical prominence, experienced a resurgence during Plutarch’s tenure, partly due to his efforts to revive its cultural and spiritual significance.
Plutarch was also involved in the Amphictyonic League, an ancient association of Greek tribes, serving multiple terms as epimeletes (manager) of its affairs. His ability to move comfortably between civic and philosophical roles underscored his commitment to fostering a harmonious relationship between governance, religion, and intellectual thought.
Parallel Lives: Biographies of ethics and character
Plutarch’s best-known work, Parallel Lives, consists of paired biographies of famous Greeks and Romans, comparing their virtues, vices, and leadership styles. He grouped figures such as Alexander the Great with Julius Caesar, Theseus with Romulus, and Demosthenes with Cicero, highlighting their similarities and differences to draw moral and philosophical lessons.
Plutarch’s aim was not to write comprehensive histories but to examine character. He famously remarked, “It is not histories I am writing, but lives.” His focus on personal anecdotes and minor incidents over major historical events was deliberate; he believed that small actions often revealed more about a person’s character than grand achievements. For instance, in his biography of Alexander the Great, Plutarch devotes significant attention to Alexander’s relationship with his childhood horse Bucephalus, interpreting it as a symbol of the young conqueror’s determination and charisma.
Similarly, his life of Julius Caesar illuminates both Caesar’s tactical genius and his personal ambition, exploring how his virtues and flaws led to both his rise and his downfall. This approach offered readers moral insights while emphasizing the complex interplay between character and destiny.
Moralia: Essays on life, philosophy, and ethics
Beyond biography, Plutarch authored Moralia, a collection of essays, dialogues, and speeches on diverse topics, ranging from metaphysics to practical ethics. The seventy-eight surviving works include philosophical treatises such as “On the Decline of the Oracles,” which explores why divine prophecy seemed to be diminishing in Plutarch’s time, and “On the Worship of Isis and Osiris,” a detailed study of Egyptian religion and its symbolic meanings.
Other essays, like “On Fraternal Affection” and “On the Delays of the Divine Vengeance,” reflect Plutarch’s preoccupation with human relationships and morality. His writing style was engaging and accessible, blending humor, anecdote, and philosophical depth. In “On the Eating of Flesh,” Plutarch even provides an early defense of vegetarianism, arguing from ethical and environmental perspectives—a strikingly modern stance for his era.
Plutarch’s essays also reveal his belief in the soul’s immortality, the importance of free will, and the role of divine providence. He often used allegory to bridge philosophical concepts with religious traditions, making his works resonate with a broad audience.
More Affairs
Philosophy
As a Middle Platonist, Plutarch revered Plato’s teachings but integrated insights from other schools of thought. While he appreciated Stoic discipline and Aristotelian logic, he rejected Epicureanism, particularly its denial of divine intervention. For Plutarch, the gods were not distant or indifferent but actively involved in human affairs, a view that aligned with his belief in providence and moral accountability.
Plutarch emphasized ethical conduct and the cultivation of virtue. He saw philosophy as a practical tool for improving one’s character, echoing his belief that true wisdom lay in moral excellence. His religious philosophy was equally profound; he viewed myths not as literal truths but as symbolic narratives that conveyed deeper philosophical insights.
Influence on history, literature, and philosophy
Plutarch’s influence transcended his era, shaping intellectual and cultural traditions for centuries. During the Renaissance, his works were rediscovered and translated into multiple languages. Jacques Amyot’s French translations of Parallel Lives in the 16th century inspired Thomas North’s English version, which became a critical source for Shakespeare’s Roman plays, including Julius Caesar, Antony and Cleopatra, and Coriolanus.
The Moralia also left a profound legacy, influencing thinkers like Michel de Montaigne, who modeled his Essays on Plutarch’s reflective style. Enlightenment philosophers, including Jean-Jacques Rousseau, admired Plutarch’s moral vision and used his arguments to support progressive ideas, such as opposition to meat consumption.
In America, figures like Alexander Hamilton and Thomas Jefferson drew inspiration from Plutarch’s portraits of leadership. Ralph Waldo Emerson, the transcendentalist philosopher, described Plutarch’s Lives as a “bible for heroes,” emphasizing its timeless lessons on character and virtue.
Personal life
Despite his public and intellectual achievements, Plutarch’s personal life was marked by devotion to family and community. He married Timoxena, with whom he had at least five children. His letters reflect a loving and philosophical perspective on family life; in one poignant letter to his wife, he consoles her after the death of their young daughter, Timoxena, by expressing faith in the soul’s immortality.
Plutarch’s vegetarianism, though not strictly adhered to, demonstrates his commitment to ethical living. His discourses on the ethics of meat-eating remain some of the earliest recorded arguments on this subject, highlighting his broad and forward-thinking moral philosophy.
Conclusion
Plutarch’s life and works embody a unique blend of philosophical inquiry, ethical reflection, and historical storytelling. His Parallel Lives remains an essential resource for understanding ancient leadership, while Moralia offers timeless wisdom on human conduct and society. Through his synthesis of Greek and Roman thought, Plutarch bridged two great civilizations, leaving a legacy that continues to inform literature, philosophy, and history.
By examining the lives of the past’s great figures and grappling with questions of morality and character, Plutarch not only chronicled history but also sought to illuminate the enduring truths of human nature. His works remind us that, regardless of time or place, the exploration of virtue and character remains central to understanding the human experience.
