Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos ruled Ptolemaic Egypt from 80 to 51 BCE and was the dad of Cleopatra VII. He was born out of wedlock and had a bit of a drinking problem, which made him a target for mockery, earning him the nickname Auletes, or “the Flute-Player,” because he was into music. His reign lasted almost three decades, during which he bribed key Roman leaders like Pompey and Julius Caesar to keep Egypt from being taken over by Rome.
In 58 BCE, things got messy with economic issues and rising anti-Roman feelings, leading his daughter Berenike IV to take his throne. Ptolemy XII managed to get back in power in 56 BCE by bribing the Roman proconsul Aulus Gabinius. But these hefty bribes meant he had to borrow cash from Roman bankers, leaving his kids, Cleopatra VII and Ptolemy XIII, with a mountain of debt. Still, his moves helped keep the Ptolemaic dynasty alive by protecting Egypt from Roman conflict.
Early Life
Ptolemy XII was part of the Greek Ptolemaic dynasty that took over Egypt after Alexander the Great’s conquest. He likely popped into the world sometime after 100 BCE, since Cicero described him as a teenager in 80 BCE. He was the illegitimate son of Ptolemy IX and an unknown woman. Historians think his mom might have been a Greek or Syrian courtesan or maybe even an Egyptian noblewoman. In Ptolemaic Egypt, kids born out of wedlock weren’t exactly celebrated, so he earned the nickname Nothos, which means “the Bastard” in Greek.
In 88 BCE, his half-brother and rival, Ptolemy X Alexander, died while trying to seize Cyprus. Before he kicked the bucket, he supposedly left Egypt to the Roman Republic in his will. But the Romans brushed that off since Ptolemy IX was still running the show. Plus, the Roman Senate was worried that any general who took Egypt would become too powerful and popular, possibly turning into a dictator. So, the threat of Rome taking over loomed over Ptolemy XII throughout his life.
For reasons that aren’t clear, Ptolemy XII spent his teenage years in Syria. There’s a chance he was captured by Mithridates VI of Pontus when he took control of the Egyptian-held island of Kos in 88 BCE. Some historians even speculate that he might be one of the sons of Cleopatra III and Ptolemy VIII, who were sent to Kos before 113 BCE. But those princes were legitimate and older than Ptolemy XII.
Coronation & Marriages
After Ptolemy XI got taken out by a mob in Alexandria, people started talking about how his will left the Ptolemaic Kingdom to Rome. To stop that from happening, the folks in Alexandria quickly picked a new king. Since years of civil war had wiped out most of the Ptolemaic family, they chose Ptolemy XII to lead Egypt, while his brother got Cyprus. Cleopatra Selene I, a Seleucid queen with Ptolemaic roots, claimed her sons had a stronger right to the throne. She and her boys went to Rome in 75 BCE and gifted a fancy candelabra to the Temple of Jupiter Capitolinus, but the Roman Senate didn’t recognize their claims.
In 79 BCE, Ptolemy XII tied the knot with Cleopatra V Tryphaena to solidify his claim to the throne. Ancient Egyptian texts refer to them as Sibling Gods, which was just a standard title for ruling pairs in the Ptolemaic dynasty. Cleopatra V was likely the daughter of Ptolemy X and Cleopatra IV, making her Ptolemy XII’s cousin. They had at least one legit daughter, Berenike IV, and it’s possible that his most famous kid, Cleopatra VII, came from this marriage, even though the Roman historian Strabo said she was illegitimate.
By 69 or 68 BCE, Cleopatra V vanished from official records, either because Ptolemy divorced her or she passed away. He then had another daughter, Arsinoe IV, and two sons, Ptolemy XIII (who ruled from 51-47 BCE) and Ptolemy XIV (who ruled from 47-43 BCE), with some unknown woman. Historians think she might have been a Greek noblewoman, a courtesan, or an Egyptian priestess. At one point, he seemed to be engaged to Mithridatis, the daughter of Mithridates VI of Pontus. An inscription from the Temple of Isis in Philae also mentions three male dancers—Tryphon, Nicolaus, and Strouthion—as his lovers.
Kingship & Reputation
Ptolemy XII was known for being a bit of a party animal and not taking his role as king too seriously. He loved to throw musical competitions, which were seen as kind of beneath him, and he played the aulos, earning him the nickname Auletes, or “the Flute-Player.” His love for drinking and music was linked to Dionysus, the god of wine and inspiration. Ptolemy even called himself Neos Dionysos, or “New Dionysus,” and liked to portray himself with traits associated with the god. The Ptolemaic dynasty had always held Dionysus in high regard, seeing him as a conqueror like Osiris in Egyptian mythology.
Even though ancient writers often painted Ptolemy XII as lazy and unfit to rule, he actually accomplished quite a bit during his time as king. He built strong ties with the Egyptian priesthoods, constructing new temples and fixing up old ones. He frequently visited Memphis to honor the Temple of Ptah. Plus, trade thrived, bringing wealth to Ptolemaic Egypt.
His reign also sparked a revival for the Library of Alexandria, which had suffered after Ptolemy VIII persecuted scholars. Under Ptolemy XII’s support, many notable thinkers emerged, like doctors Zopyrus and Apollonius of Kition, philosophers Antiochus of Ashkelon and Arieus Didymus, and historian Timagenes of Alexandria, who was super influential in his time. Timagenes’ students, Strabo and Nicolaus of Damascus, went on to write important historical works that modern historians still rely on. New philosophical schools popped up too, which had a big impact on Roman philosophy.
Relationship with the Roman Republic
By the 1st century BCE, the Ptolemaic army had lost its status as a major world power, and Egypt was leaning on Rome for protection against the Seleucid Empire. Roman politicians like Marcus Licinius Crassus and Julius Caesar were pushing for Egypt to be annexed in 65 BCE, but some senators, including Marcus Tullius Cicero, were against it because they thought it could threaten the republic.
To fend off these annexation efforts, Ptolemy XII used bribes and built alliances within the Roman Senate. He also wanted Rome to officially recognize him as the legitimate king of Egypt. His key ally was Pompey the Great, whom he invited to Alexandria in 67 BCE. The next year, Ptolemy sent 8,000 Egyptian soldiers and supplies to help Pompey fight Mithridates VI. In 59 BCE, Pompey and Caesar passed a law that declared Egypt a friend and ally of the Roman Republic after Ptolemy bribed them with 6,000 talents, which was about what Egypt made in a year.
To cover these bribes, Ptolemy XII borrowed a ton of cash from Roman lenders, earning himself a reputation as a bit of a mooch and con artist. He raised taxes in Egypt to pay off his debts, which led to worker strikes and civil unrest. Anti-Roman feelings surged in Alexandria during his rule, culminating in the lynching of a visiting Roman in 60 BCE.
In 58 BCE, Clodius Pulcher suggested annexing Cyprus, which was super fertile, to fund grain distribution to the Roman people. He accused Ptolemy of Cyprus of teaming up with pirates as an excuse for war. Cato the Younger was put in charge of the Cyprus campaign because he was loyal to the Republic, and Clodius wanted him out of Rome. Cato offered the king a chance to step down and seek refuge at the Temple of Aphrodite in Paphos, but instead, the king took his own life, and Cato went ahead and annexed the island.
More Affairs
Usurpation
Ptolemy XII didn’t do anything to stop his brother’s death or the loss of Cyprus, which made him look pretty weak to his people. That same year, he had to run away, and his daughter Berenike IV took over as queen. She briefly shared power with a woman named Cleopatra VI Tryphaena, who some historians think might have been her sister, but there’s a chance she was actually Ptolemy XII’s wife with the same name.
Ptolemy XII ended up in Rhodes with his teenage daughter Cleopatra VII, where Cato welcomed them. Plutarch mentions that Cato advised Ptolemy XII to head back to Egypt instead of trusting the shady politicians in Rome. Ignoring this advice, he went to Rome and stayed at Pompey’s villa.
Meanwhile, the people of Alexandria sent a group of 100 citizens to persuade the Romans not to support Ptolemy XII. However, he managed to silence the ambassadors using bribes, threats, and even some assassinations. A lot of influential Romans wanted him back in charge of Egypt so he could repay his debts to them. But those against Roman intervention argued that prophecies warned of disaster if they reinstated an Egyptian king. With no help coming, Ptolemy XII sought refuge in the Temple of Artemis in Ephesus in 57 BCE.
Gabinius defeated the Alexandrians and got Ptolemy back on the throne, but then he got kicked out by the Senate for invading Egypt without their permission and starting a war that was seen as bad luck according to Roman beliefs, since it was against the Sibylline books.
In 56 BCE, Pompey told Aulus Gabinius, the Roman proconsul of Syria, to assist Ptolemy XII despite what the Senate thought. Ptolemy promised to pay Gabinius and his troops for their help. Gabinius marched his army into Egypt, leaving Syria open to pirates and bandits. This was the first time a Roman army had occupied Egypt. He and his right-hand man Mark Antony quickly took down Berenike IV and put Ptolemy back on the throne. Later on, Antony became Cleopatra VII’s ally and husband. After the conflict, Gabinius faced trial for going against the Senate to help Ptolemy XII. Thanks to Pompey, he was cleared of treason but found guilty of extortion and ended up exiled in 54 BCE.
Later Reign
When he got back into power, he had Berenike IV executed along with some key supporters, taking their money and property. To crush any uprisings, he relied on the Gabiniani, a group of 2,500 Roman mercenaries left by Gabinius. He also brought in conscripted slaves, criminals, and other mercenaries from around the Roman Republic to strengthen his forces. They were so fierce that even Caesar was impressed when he invaded Egypt in 48 BCE.
The bribes he paid to regain his throne made his debts skyrocket, so he raised taxes again. One of his first moves was to appoint Gaius Rabirius Postumus, a Roman banker, as Egypt’s new finance minister. Rabirius was mainly focused on getting back the money he and other Romans had lent to Ptolemy XII, which led him to squeeze taxpayers with harsh financial reforms. This hurt Egypt’s economy since they started reducing the silver content in coins. Eventually, the people of Alexandria got fed up and attacked Rabirius. Ptolemy XII had to put him under protective custody and sent him home before things got worse. Rabirius ended up on trial in Rome for extortion, and Caesar took over the remaining debts, planning to collect them from the Egyptians later.
In 52 BCE, Ptolemy XII named Cleopatra VII as his co-regent and set things up for her to take over after him. In his will, he left the kingdom to his two oldest kids: 18-year-old Cleopatra VII and 10-year-old Ptolemy XIII. He sent a copy of his will to Rome to keep it safe, hoping the Senate would uphold it if there were any disputes about succession. But Pompey intercepted the will before it reached the treasury, wanting to control the heirs by acting as the executor.
Death & Legacy
Ptolemy XII passed away from natural causes in the spring of 51 BCE, at around 40 years old. He wanted his kids to rule Egypt together peacefully, but instead, they ended up fighting for control. In 48 BCE, after Caesar beat Pompey in a civil war, Pompey ran to Egypt where Ptolemy XIII had him killed. Soon after, Caesar showed up in Egypt to collect on Ptolemy XII’s debts. He got involved in the family drama by helping Cleopatra VII take down Ptolemy XIII in 47 BCE. During this whole situation, Caesar and Cleopatra became lovers, and they had a son named Caesarion, who was Ptolemy XII’s first grandkid.
Ptolemy Auletes, during his long reign, mainly focused on keeping his grip on the Egyptian throne so he could pass it down to his heirs. He was willing to give up a lot for this, including losing valuable lands, most of his wealth, and even, as Cicero put it, his dignity when he had to beg the Romans for help.
Cleopatra VII carried on her dad’s pro-Roman policies to keep Egypt independent. Roman writers often saw her as a smarter and more capable ruler than her father, but modern historians have taken a fresh look at his time in power. Even though he could be brutal and had some tough economic policies, he managed to protect Egypt and build up a good amount of wealth. Unfortunately, his plans for a smooth handover of power after he died didn’t work out due to circumstances beyond his control.
