Ancient Greece is often hailed as the cornerstone of Western civilization, with the common story suggesting that Greece’s rich culture influenced Rome, which in turn spread these ideas across Europe through its empire. However, this viewpoint simplifies a much more intricate history. The notion of Ancient Greece as a foundational culture for European civilization is actually a more modern idea, originating in the early modern period. Similarly, the concept of the ‘West’ as we know it is not ancient, but a cultural construct that emerged under particular historical conditions.
Ancient Greece’s Impact on Western Civilization
Philosophers like Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle laid the intellectual groundwork that influenced many European thinkers. Greek art and architecture have profoundly shaped European artistic preferences, especially since the 18th century. Ancient Greece’s scientific achievements laid the groundwork for new scientific breakthroughs in the early modern period. Additionally, Ancient Greece is renowned as the cradle of democracy. These contributions often lead to the claim that Ancient Greece set a cultural standard for Western civilization, continuing its legacy in democracy, philosophy, art, and science.
However, this perspective hinges on the notion of a unified “Western” or “European civilization,” which is neither universal nor without bias. The concepts of the “West” and “Europe” are constructs, formed by specific historical events and contexts.
Defining “The West”
The concept of “Western civilization” or simply the “West” was shaped under specific and relatively recent conditions. The term “West,” often seen as the counterpart to the “East,” is multifaceted. It typically refers to Europe, particularly Western Europe, but also extends to North America, Australia, and New Zealand — regions commonly grouped as the “Global North.” Moreover, the West is frequently associated with the North Atlantic, a reflection of European colonial history. However, defining the West isn’t just about geography. There’s no universal agreement on which countries are included in the West or the criteria for such inclusion. For instance, the status of Eastern Europe in this context remains debatable.
More than geography, the West is often characterized by the notion of a shared culture. Yet, this too is a broad and unclear standard. Countries considered part of the West display diverse cultures, languages, and histories. Within this framework, the cultural heritage of ancient Greece is frequently cited as the foundation of Western civilization. But the question arises: How did this particular idea gain prominence?
Ancient Greek Worldview
The ancient Greeks had a complex and evolving understanding of the world and their place in it. Given the diversity of cultures within ancient Greece, pinning down a singular “Ancient Greek heritage” is challenging. Moreover, the perspectives varied across different regions and Greek city-states. Despite these variations, there was a common Ancient Greek worldview, markedly different from our own.
Herodotus, in his “Histories,” described the world as divided into three parts: Lybia (south), Asia (east), and Europe (comprising the rest). For the ancient Greeks, their civilization, located in the Balkans and Anatolia, was central, separating the West from the East and South. This central region is viewed differently today, often considered the periphery of Europe or not part of Europe at all. Additionally, the ancient Greeks didn’t perceive a unified “European people,” nor did they conceive modern racial categories.
Language and cultural traits were key to the ancient Greeks’ sense of identity. Those who didn’t speak Greek were termed ‘barbarians’ (bárbaroi), a label applied to both enemies and allies, encompassing great civilizations like Egypt and Persia as well as smaller tribes to the north of Greece.
Complicating the Greek legacy further were the extensive trade and cultural networks they established with other Mediterranean cultures, and occasionally, regions farther east. In contrast, their connections with the ‘barbarian’ societies to the north, in the rest of Europe, were less extensive. Ancient Greece was primarily oriented towards the Mediterranean, where flourishing cultures like ancient Egypt held more influence and significance than the smaller tribal societies of Europe.
Ancient Greece’s European Legacy
Greek culture expanded beyond its borders during the Hellenistic Period, which followed Alexander the Great’s conquests. However, the Hellenistic states established by Alexander’s successors were mostly outside Europe. Greek culture also had a significant impact on Rome as it gradually conquered the Greek world. Notably, after the fall of the Western Roman Empire, the Roman Empire continued to exist as the Eastern Roman Empire, often called the Byzantine Empire, until the fall of Constantinople in 1453 CE. Despite its direct cultural connections to both Ancient Greece and Rome, the Byzantine Empire is often overlooked in Western historical narratives.
During the Middle Ages, what is now Western Europe was fragmented into various kingdoms and feudal territories, with Christianity playing a major role in shaping state relations and interactions with the Islamic world. The period was marked by a tense and often antagonistic relationship between Christian and Muslim realms. However, it was the Islamic world that played a crucial role in preserving ancient Greek knowledge. They translated numerous key Greek texts, ensuring their survival and eventual dissemination throughout Europe in later centuries.
In contrast, Western Europe during the Middle Ages paid little attention to Greek culture. It wasn’t until the Renaissance and the Early Modern period that the significance of the Ancient Greek legacy was rediscovered and celebrated. This era marked a (re)introduction to antiquity for Western Europe, and it was during this time that the idea of Ancient Greece as the foundational culture of European civilization took root.
Johann Joachim Winckelmann (1717-1768), an early archaeologist and art historian, played a pivotal role in encouraging Europeans to embrace Ancient Greek and Roman cultures. His dedication to studying Greek and Roman art significantly contributed to the rise of the Neoclassical movement. Inspired by the growing fascination with Ancient Greece and its perceived importance, many travelers, writers, and adventurers of the late 18th and 19th centuries journeyed to Greece.
However, a significant complication arose from the fact that, since the fall of Constantinople in 1453, Greece had been under Ottoman rule. This led 18th and 19th-century Europeans to view Greece as part of “the East,” outside their cultural domain. While figures like Byron supported the Greek War of Independence (1821-1832) against the Ottomans, Western European interest primarily focused on Greek antiquity rather than contemporary Greeks. In essence, Western Europe saw itself, not the modern Greeks, as the rightful heirs to the legacy of ancient glory.
These perspectives persisted into the 19th century, a period marked by the Industrial Revolution and colonial expansion, which solidified Western Europe’s global dominance. Concurrently, racial theories, first formulated in the 18th century, gained traction. European elites asserted that their global power and success were due to racial superiority, encompassing greater intelligence, biological traits, and a more advanced culture. This belief system co-opted the Greek cultural legacy as a cornerstone of Europe’s claimed cultural superiority. A notable manifestation of this attitude was the widespread practice of removing Greek art and monuments, including the famous Parthenon marbles, and transporting them to Western capitals.
Ancient Greece: Birthplace of the West?
The role of Ancient Greece in shaping the European psyche is undeniably significant. The notion that modern Europe traces its origins back to Ancient Greece holds considerable sway. This idea acknowledges the enduring influence of Greek culture throughout history. However, it’s crucial to approach this concept with a critical eye, as it has sometimes been co-opted for harmful purposes, such as by white supremacist and racist groups.
Acknowledging and valuing the intellectual achievements of Ancient Greece, along with its lasting legacy, is important. Yet, it’s equally vital to understand that the perception of Ancient Greece as the birthplace of Western civilization is itself a product of historical development. The key misstep in viewing Ancient Greece as the sole cradle of Western civilization lies not in denying Greek cultural contributions, but in the oversimplified and essentialist concept of a monolithic “Western Civilization.”
