The reign of Roman Emperors, beginning with Augustus in 27 BCE, marked a significant era in history. These rulers, known as Caesars and Imperators, maintained their power largely through military strength. This period of imperial rule spanned from the late 5th century CE in Western Rome to the mid-15th century CE in the Eastern Roman Empire.
Before the emergence of the Roman Empire in the late first century BCE, several other empires had risen and fallen. Notable among them were the Assyrian, Babylonian, Persian, and Macedonian empires, led by renowned figures like Cyrus, Darius, Xerxes, and Alexander the Great.
Interestingly, these earlier leaders were known as kings, not emperors. This terminology sets the Roman Empire apart. Unlike these previous civilizations, Rome was ruled by emperors, not kings. To understand this unique distinction, one must delve into nearly a thousand years of history, spanning both the Roman Republic and the Empire.
From The Republic to The Empire
Before its transformation into an empire, Rome was a republic, characterized by a form of “democratic” governance. Following the overthrow of the Etruscan monarchy, Rome established a system ruled by a Senate and assemblies, where magistrates like consuls and tribunes were elected, each serving for a limited term. As Rome expanded its territory through military conquests across the Italian peninsula, North Africa, Spain, Macedonia, Greece, and various Mediterranean islands, the Republic grew in size and influence.
However, the vastness of the Republic brought significant challenges to its governance. Leadership roles were often filled by a mix of capable and less effective individuals. Prominent figures like Sulla, Gaius, Pompey, and ultimately Julius Caesar climbed the ranks of political and military power. Caesar’s eventual declaration as “dictator for life” highlighted the limitations of the Republican structure in handling various social, political, and economic pressures, signaling a need for change.
The turning point came with the assassination of Julius Caesar on the Ides of March, an act carried out by Senate members. This event sparked a complex struggle for power involving the Second Triumvirate – Octavian, Mark Antony, and Lepidus. Octavian emerged victorious from this turmoil, marking the end of the Republic and the dawn of the Roman Empire.
The First One
Octavian, later known as Augustus, emerged as a triumphant general, often hailed as “Imperator” by his troops, especially after defeating Mark Antony. This title of “Imperator” would later become a standard designation for his successors, who assumed it upon taking the imperial throne, irrespective of their military prowess. After two decades of civil strife, Octavian, Julius Caesar’s adopted son, returned to Rome, welcomed as a hero.
The Roman populace, yearning for the bygone stability of the Republic, celebrated his return. Octavian initially appeared reluctant to accept honors or power, but over time, as he adopted the name Augustus, meaning “sacred” or “revered,” he gradually expanded his authority, far exceeding what the Senate had envisioned when they granted it. This shift raised a historical debate: Was Augustus a covert tyrant stripping away Roman freedom, or a benevolent leader sharing power with the Senate, with the approval of Rome’s citizens?
As emperor, Augustus laid the foundation for his successors, a lineage extending from Tiberius, his often criticized stepson, through the notorious reigns of Caligula and Nero, to the brutal and incompetent Domitian. The line of Roman emperors concluded with Romulus Augustulus, whose name curiously echoed both a mythical founder of Rome and its first emperor.
Imperium Maius – The Most Powerful Person
Although remnants of the old Roman Republic like the Senate remained, they were largely symbolic under the Empire. In contrast to kingdoms where a king often answered to an assembly (like England’s Parliament or France’s Estates General), Roman emperors enjoyed more autonomous control. They could collect and spend money at their discretion. A notable example is Emperor Nero, who would fabricate conspiracies to seize and liquidate a senator’s assets under false pretenses.
Post-Augustus, the Senate lost any real power, serving mainly to ratify the emperor’s decisions. While emperors generally treated the Senate with some respect, partly to avoid a repeat of the Ides of March, the true authority lay with the emperor. To safeguard his position, the emperor relied on the Praetorian Guard, which, within decades, would gain significant influence, surpassing even Augustus’s anticipations.
Augustus, with the Senate’s approval, gradually assumed sole leadership of the Empire. Although he was averse to grand titles, even rejecting the title of emperor, he adopted the title of “princeps,” meaning “first citizen.” He held various key positions, including consul and governor of strategic provinces, commanding a substantial military force of twenty-six legions.
The Senate granted him lifelong powers: “imperium maius,” giving him supreme authority over provincial governors, and “tribunicia potestas,” the power to convene the people’s assembly for lawmaking. These powers enabled him to veto magistrate decisions (whom he later appointed) and control imperial patronage, making it impossible for anyone to run for office without his approval. Augustus also influenced religious practices, restoring old temples and rituals, and taking the title of Pontifex Maximus, or Chief Priest. Essentially, his word became law.
Despite his extensive powers, Augustus maintained popularity through providing grain, overseeing games, and spearheading numerous reconstruction projects. Historian Suetonius in “The Twelve Caesars” noted Augustus’s impact: “I found Rome built of sun-dried bricks; I leave her clothed in marble.” Successors of Augustus continued this tradition, enhancing the city’s infrastructure, which led many Romans to believe they were entering a new golden age.
Dynasties
Augustus, ruling from 31 BCE to 14 CE, exerted control over the Roman Empire even posthumously by designating his successor, a practice akin to that of a monarch. However, unlike kings who typically passed their throne along familial lines, Roman emperors often did not follow this tradition. For instance, the last emperor of the Roman Empire bore no relation to his predecessor, much less to Augustus. In fact, few emperors were blood relatives. Notable exceptions include Titus and Domitian, sons of Vespasian, and Commodus, son of Marcus Aurelius.
Many emperors, such as Tiberius, Nero, Trajan, Hadrian, Antoninus Pius, and Marcus Aurelius, came to power through adoption. Nerva was selected by the Senate. Others, like Galba, Otho, Vitellius, Vespasian, and Macrinus, seized the throne via conquest or assassination. In an extraordinary case, Didius Julianus actually purchased his position. Notably, some emperors, including Macrinus and Maximinus, never even visited Rome. Furthermore, the Empire occasionally witnessed multiple claimants to the throne, as seen during the Year of the Five Emperors.
Regardless of how one ascended to the throne, the immense power associated with the position of emperor remained constant. Central to the safeguarding of this power was the Praetorian Guard. While the authority of the empire rested with the emperor, his personal safety and, by extension, his rule, were entrusted to the Guard. During tumultuous times, the Praetorian Guard played a crucial role in selecting, and at times deposing, emperors.
The life of a Roman emperor was often far from the grandeur of ceremonies, military leadership, and lawmaking. Post Caligula’s assassination by the Praetorian Guard, Claudius, found hiding behind a curtain, was hastily declared emperor by a reluctant Senate. Similarly, after recognizing Elagabalus’ incompetence and corruption, the Guard murdered him and his mother, subsequently proclaiming Alexander Severus as the new ruler.
Being an emperor was fraught with danger and paranoia. Among the first twelve emperors, from Augustus to Nerva, the causes of death varied significantly: four died of natural causes (though some of these are debatable), four were assassinated, two committed suicide, and two were murdered by poison or suffocation. As a historian aptly put it, “supreme power brought supreme risk.” Resignations were rare, and natural deaths uncommon, overshadowed by the ever-present threat of overthrow.
Despite the tumultuous and sometimes destructive reigns of emperors like Caligula, Nero, Commodus, and Elagabalus, the autocratic power of the emperor endured. Fortunately, the Empire also witnessed the strength and leadership of emperors such as Vespasian, Trajan, Marcus Aurelius, and Constantine. Through their reigns, territories were gained and lost, the Empire expanded and contracted, but, amidst the oscillation between competent and disastrous rulers, the Roman Empire continued its remarkable existence.
As Divine As Gods
The Roman emperor occupied a revered status in both life and death, often leading to their deification or apotheosis after their passing. This practice, known as the Imperial Cult, was not exclusive to Rome; its roots can be traced back to Alexander the Great, who saw himself as a son of Zeus rather than of Philip II.
During his reign, Emperor Augustus was venerated like a deity, with altars and temples dedicated to him across the empire in cities like Pergamum, Lyons, and Athens. However, in Rome, such tributes were absent during his lifetime. While Augustus may have viewed himself as divinely descended, he refrained from declaring himself a god. After his death, the Senate deified him, a posthumous honor bestowed upon several of his successors, including Antoninus Pius, Hadrian, Marcus Aurelius, Trajan, and Alexander Severus.
The process of deification was often initiated by the succeeding emperor. However, emperors perceived as particularly detestable, such as Tiberius, Caligula, Nero, Commodus, and Elagabalus, were typically denied this honor. Notably, Caligula and Nero claimed divinity during their lifetimes, and Commodus fancied himself as the reincarnation of Hercules, reflecting their grandiose self-perceptions.
Roman Emperors in West and East
Under Diocletian, who ascended to power in 284 CE, the Roman Empire faced a dire situation. The Pax Romana, the long-standing Roman peace, had been a thing of the past for over a century. Besieged on all sides, the Empire teetered on the brink of collapse. Diocletian recognized a fundamental issue plaguing the Empire: its unwieldy size. To address this, he implemented the tetrarchy, or rule of four, effectively splitting the Empire into two segments. One was centered around Rome, and the other had its capital initially in Nicomedia, which would later be relocated to Byzantium, or Constantinople, by Emperor Constantine.
This new system marked the end of the principate established by Augustus, transitioning to the dominate. Diocletian took several critical steps to fortify the Empire: he strengthened its borders, overhauled the bureaucracy for greater efficiency, and stabilized the economy. However, these reforms had uneven effects. While the eastern part of the Empire thrived, the western half experienced decline. Rome itself deteriorated, culminating in 476 CE when the last emperor abdicated.
The fall of Rome was led by Odoacer, who, upon his victory, notably declined the title of emperor. This marked a significant turning point in history, signaling the end of the Western Roman Empire and the transition into a new era in Europe.
Conclusion
Throughout its history, the Roman Empire managed to maintain a general sense of contentment among its people, even in periods of hardship. This was largely due to the emperors’ provision of essential needs and entertainment. Key to this was the supply of grain, ensuring the availability of bread, and the organization of games and spectacles, which offered diversion and amusement.
The legacy of many emperors was cemented through the construction of grand and lasting monuments. Notable examples include the Baths of Caracalla and Nero, showcasing the grandeur of Roman architecture and engineering, the Arch of Constantine, commemorating his victory at the Battle of Milvian Bridge, and Trajan’s Column, a testament to his victories in the Dacian Wars.
The role of the emperor in Rome was that of an absolute ruler, providing a central pillar of stability for the Empire. Unlike modern constitutional offices, the emperor embodied the law itself. This concentration of power in a single individual, while sometimes leading to excesses and abuses, was a defining characteristic of Roman governance, helping to sustain the Empire through various challenges and transitions.
