At its peak around 117 AD in history of Ancient Rome, the Roman Empire was a colossal force in Western civilization, surpassing any political and social structures of its time. It evolved from the Roman Republic, becoming a dominant power in politics and military might. The empire saw continuous expansion until its decline in the West in 476 AD.
The sheer size of the empire by 285 AD made centralized governance from Rome impractical, leading Emperor Diocletian (ruling from 284-305 AD) to split it into Western and Eastern segments. The Roman Empire’s journey began with Augustus Caesar’s reign (27 BCE-14 CE) as the first emperor and concluded in the West when Romulus Augustulus (ruling from 475-476 AD) was overthrown by the Germanic leader Odoacer (ruling from 476-493 AD). However, in the East, it persisted as the Byzantine Empire until 1453, ending with Constantine XI’s reign (1449-1453) and the fall of Constantinople to the Ottoman Turks. The Roman Empire’s impact on Western culture was immense, leaving enduring marks on nearly every facet of Western life.
Early Dynasties
After the Battle of Actium in 31 BCE, Gaius Octavian Thurinus, Julius Caesar’s nephew and adopted son, ascended as Rome’s first true emperor, adopting the name Augustus Caesar. Contrary to common belief, Julius Caesar was not an emperor but a dictator, a title reluctantly given by the Senate due to his overwhelming military and political dominance. Augustus, on the other hand, was officially granted the title of emperor by the Senate, who bestowed it with enthusiasm for his victories and the stability he brought to Rome.
Augustus’ reign from 27 BCE to 14 CE was transformative. He famously said he turned Rome from a city of bricks into one of marble. His reign saw major legal reforms, fortified borders, and grand architectural projects, including the first Pantheon built by his trusted general Agrippa. His era ushered in the Pax Romana, or Roman Peace, an unprecedented period of peace and prosperity lasting over 200 years, also known as the Pax Augusta.
After his death, Augustus’ adopted son Tiberius (ruling from 14-37 CE) inherited the empire. Tiberius maintained many of Augustus’ policies but lacked his predecessor’s visionary leadership. This pattern somewhat continued with subsequent emperors: Caligula (37-41 CE), Claudius (41-54 CE), and Nero (54-68 CE). These rulers formed the Julio-Claudian Dynasty, named after the Julius and Claudius families from which they descended, either by birth or adoption.
Caligula, though infamous for his later excesses and madness, began his reign commendably, as did his successor, Claudius, who notably expanded Rome’s influence into Britain. Nero’s rule, however, was less impressive. Both Caligula and Claudius met their end through assassination—Caligula by his Praetorian Guard and Claudius, reportedly, by his wife. Nero’s suicide concluded the Julio-Claudian Dynasty and led to the tumultuous Year of the Four Emperors.
This chaotic year saw the rapid succession of four emperors: Galba, Otho, Vitellius, and Vespasian. Galba took power in 69 but was quickly deemed inadequate and assassinated by his own guards. Otho, his successor, was initially met with optimism but soon faced a civil war ignited by General Vitellius. Otho’s subsequent suicide paved the way for Vitellius, who indulged in luxury, neglecting his imperial duties.
Vespasian, supported by the legions, overthrew Vitellius, becoming emperor one year after Galba’s ascent. He established the Flavian Dynasty, marked by extensive building projects, economic growth, and territorial expansion. Vespasian’s notable achievements include initiating the construction of the Flavian Amphitheatre (later known as the Colosseum), which his son Titus completed.
Titus’ short reign witnessed the catastrophic eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79, burying Pompeii and Herculaneum. He was lauded for his effective management of this disaster and the great fire of Rome in 80. Titus died of a fever in 81, succeeded by his brother Domitian. Domitian fortified Rome’s borders, repaired fire damage, continued construction projects, and boosted the economy. However, his authoritarian style alienated the Senate, leading to his assassination in 96.
Related: Titles for Roman Authority
Five God Emperors
After Domitian, Nerva succeeded as emperor, initiating the Nervan-Antonin Dynasty which reigned from 96 to 192 AD. This era is celebrated for its significant prosperity, largely due to the leadership of “The Five Good Emperors,” who sequentially led Rome to its zenith:
- Nerva (reigned 96-98)
- Trajan (reigned 98-117)
- Hadrian (reigned 117-138)
- Antoninus Pius (reigned 138-161)
- Marcus Aurelius (reigned 161-180)
These emperors collectively fostered a period of increased stability, growth, and territorial expansion for the Roman Empire. The Nervan-Antonin Dynasty’s final rulers were Lucius Verus and Commodus. Verus, co-emperor with Marcus Aurelius until his death in 169, was largely inconsequential. In stark contrast, Commodus (reigned 180-192), the son of Marcus Aurelius, is infamous for his self-indulgent and detrimental reign, often considered one of Rome’s most disgraceful emperors. His assassination in 192, likely orchestrated by his wrestling partner and possibly engineered by the prefect Pertinax, marked the end of the Nervan-Antonin Dynasty and led to Pertinax’s rise to power.
The Severan Dynasty
Pertinax’s brief reign, lasting only three months, was abruptly ended by assassination. His death triggered the tumultuous Year of the Five Emperors, eventually leading to Septimius Severus’s ascension. Severus, ruling from 193 to 211, founded the Severan Dynasty. His reign was marked by military successes, including victories over the Parthians and expansions in Africa and Britain, albeit these campaigns were expensive and later strained Rome’s finances.
Severus was succeeded by his sons, Caracalla and Geta, though this co-rule was short-lived as Caracalla had Geta murdered. Caracalla’s rule lasted until 217, ending with his assassination by a bodyguard. A notable act of his reign was granting Roman citizenship to all free men in the empire, a move speculated to be motivated by a desire to increase tax revenues.
The Severan Dynasty’s later years were heavily influenced by Julia Maesa, often referred to as “empress,” who orchestrated political maneuvers from behind the scenes. The dynasty ended with the assassination of Alexander Severus in 235, plunging Rome into the Crisis of the Third Century, a period of instability and turmoil that lasted until 284.
East and West Separation
The Imperial Crisis, a period fraught with relentless civil war and power struggles, defined the Roman Empire from 235 to 284. Military leaders repeatedly clashed for supremacy, exacerbating social unrest and economic turmoil. The Severan Dynasty’s devaluation of currency contributed significantly to this instability. The crisis reached a point where the empire fragmented into three distinct regions, signaling a near collapse.
Aurelian, emperor from 270 to 275, managed to reunite the empire. His policies laid the groundwork for further stabilization under Diocletian, who introduced the Tetrarchy around 285. This system, dividing rule among four leaders, aimed to bring order across the vast empire.
Recognizing the empire’s sheer size as a governance challenge, Diocletian, in a landmark decision around 285, split the empire into two halves for more effective administration. He elevated Maximian (ruling 286-305) as co-emperor, essentially forming the Western and Eastern Roman Empires, the latter later known as the Byzantine Empire. To address the succession issues that fueled the crisis, Diocletian mandated that successors be chosen and approved early in an emperor’s reign, with generals Maxentius and Constantine being notable examples.
Diocletian’s voluntary retirement in 305 marked the beginning of the end for the Tetrarchy, as the empire’s regions began competing for supremacy. After Diocletian’s death in 311, Maxentius and Constantine’s rivalry plunged the empire back into civil war, underscoring the ongoing struggle for control in post-Diocletian Rome.
Christianity Became National Religion
In 312, Constantine’s victory over Maxentius at the Battle of the Milvian Bridge was a pivotal moment, leading him to become the sole ruler of both the Western and Eastern Roman Empires. He reigned from 306 to 337, achieving supreme power between 324 and 337. Constantine attributed his success to Jesus Christ, which led to significant religious changes in the empire. The Edict of Milan in 313, one of his landmark policies, established religious tolerance, particularly for Christianity.
Like previous emperors who aligned themselves with specific deities to bolster their rule (such as Caracalla with Serapis, or Diocletian with Jupiter), Constantine aligned himself with Jesus Christ. He played a pivotal role in the First Council of Nicaea in 325, guiding discussions to define Christian doctrine, including Jesus’ divinity and the compilation of texts that would become the Bible. Beyond religious reform, Constantine stabilized the empire, reformed its currency and military, and founded New Rome on the Byzantium site, later known as Constantinople (modern Istanbul).
Constantine the Great, as he came to be known, earned his title not only for championing Christianity, as later Christian writers emphasized, but also for his extensive reforms in religion, culture, and politics, his military prowess, and his ambitious building projects.
After his death, Constantine’s sons—Constantine II, Constantius II, and Constans—inherited the empire. However, their rule was marred by internal strife, as they battled over territory and power, leading to the deaths of Constantine II and Constans. Constantius II, before his death, appointed his cousin Julian as his successor.
Emperor Julian, ruling for a brief period from 361 to 363, sought to restore Rome’s former grandeur through various reforms aimed at government efficiency. His reign, though short, was marked by efforts to return to some of the empire’s earlier traditions and values.
Julian, a Neo-Platonic philosopher, strongly opposed Christianity, attributing the empire’s decline to the religion and Constantine’s endorsement of it. Despite officially advocating religious tolerance, he systematically undermined Christianity’s influence. Julian removed Christians from key government roles, restricted the teaching and spread of Christianity, and excluded Christians from military service. His death during a campaign against the Persians marked the end of the dynasty established by Constantine, earning him the moniker “Julian the Apostate” due to his renunciation of Christianity.
Jovian, Julian’s brief successor, reinstated Christianity as the empire’s primary faith and overturned Julian’s anti-Christian policies. Theodosius I, ruling from 379 to 395, took these religious reforms further. He outlawed pagan worship, shuttered schools and universities, converted pagan temples into Christian churches, and in 380 declared Christianity the state religion of Rome.
Theodosius’ decree led to the closure of Plato’s renowned Academy. His reforms, however, were unpopular with both the Roman elite and the general populace, who clung to traditional pagan practices. Theodosius’ promotion of Christianity disrupted the longstanding harmony between Roman civic duties and pagan religious beliefs, introducing a monotheistic God unrelated to Rome’s state affairs. This new religious paradigm marked a significant departure from the previous state-sponsored Roman religion, where rituals and festivals reinforced the government’s stature.
Theodosius I, while fervently championing Christianity, appeared to have neglected other imperial responsibilities. He was the last emperor to rule both the Eastern and Western Roman Empires, signaling a pivotal shift in the empire’s history.
Final Stage of Roman Empire
Between 376 and 382, the Roman Empire engaged in the Gothic Wars, battling invading Goths. A critical moment in these conflicts was the Battle of Adrianople on 9 August 378, where Emperor Valens was defeated. Historians often cite this battle as a turning point in the Western Roman Empire’s decline. The reasons behind the fall of the Roman Empire have been debated extensively, with no consensus on the specific causes.
Edward Gibbon, in his seminal work “The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire,” controversially argued that Christianity significantly contributed to the empire’s downfall by eroding its societal values, which were traditionally upheld by paganism.
However, this view of Christianity’s role was contested long before Gibbon. The theologian Orosius, around the 5th century, defended Christianity, claiming that pagan practices were the actual culprits behind Rome’s fall. Additional factors contributing to the empire’s decline include:
- Political instability exacerbated by the empire’s vast size.
- Self-interest and lack of cooperation between the Eastern and Western halves.
- Invasions by barbarian tribes.
- Widespread government corruption.
- Reliance on mercenary armies.
- Over-dependence on slave labor.
- Significant unemployment and inflation.
The empire’s sheer size, even when divided, posed immense administrative challenges. While the Eastern Empire prospered, the Western Empire languished, with both sides prioritizing their interests over mutual support. The rise of the Germanic tribes and their relentless invasions could have been more effectively countered if not for rampant corruption, particularly among provincial governors, and a more equitable treatment of the Goths by the Romans.
The decline of the Roman military was a significant factor in the fall of the empire. Increasingly relying on barbarian mercenaries with no loyalty to Rome, the army’s effectiveness in defending the borders diminished. Additionally, the government faced challenges in tax collection within the provinces. The economic situation was further strained by the devaluation of currency, a trend that started under the Severan Dynasty, fueling inflation. The widespread use of slave labor also contributed to high unemployment among the lower-class citizens.
The influx of the Visigoths into the empire in the third century, who were fleeing the Huns, and their subsequent uprisings, are also noted as pivotal factors in the empire’s decline.
The Western Roman Empire officially came to an end on 4 September 476 with the deposition of Emperor Romulus Augustulus by the Germanic King Odoacer. Some historians extend this date to 480, marking the death of Julius Nepos. The Eastern Roman Empire, however, persisted as the Byzantine Empire until 1453. Despite its early identification as the Roman Empire, the Byzantine Empire significantly diverged in character from its predecessor.
Later, the concept of the Roman Empire was reimagined with the formation of the Holy Roman Empire (962-1806). However, this entity differed greatly from the Roman Empire of antiquity and was more a titular empire than a continuation of the Roman imperial tradition.
The Legacy That the Empire Left
The Roman Empire was a hub of remarkable inventions and innovations, many of which have had a lasting impact on the modern world. Their advancements significantly transformed ancient life and continue to influence various aspects of contemporary culture globally.
Among their notable contributions were significant improvements in infrastructure, such as road construction, building techniques, indoor plumbing, and the development of aqueducts. They are also credited with enhancing fast-drying cement, a crucial component in their architectural success.
The Western calendar we use today is a legacy of the Roman Empire, specifically stemming from the Julian calendar introduced by Julius Caesar. Additionally, the names of days and months, particularly in Romance languages, have Roman origins. The Romans also established consumer rights practices, including the ability to return defective or unwanted goods.
Urban living saw advancements with the Romans, who developed apartment complexes called insulae. They also made strides in public sanitation with public toilets and in security with locks and keys. The concept of a regularly issued newspaper, the use of socks, and even the creation of shoes were Roman developments. They contributed to the postal system, inspired by the Persians, and introduced cosmetics, magnifying glasses, and the genre of satire in literature.
Their era witnessed significant progress in medicine, law, religion, government, and warfare. Romans excelled in adopting and enhancing inventions and ideas they encountered in conquered regions, making it challenging to distinguish between their original creations and innovations on pre-existing concepts.
Thus, while it’s complex to pinpoint what is distinctly a Roman invention versus an adaptation, their empire undeniably left a profound and enduring legacy, influencing modern life in countless ways.
[block id=”ancient-rome”]
