In 1993, a group of Austrian archaeologists made an extraordinary discovery at the ancient Roman city of Ephesus in Turkey. They uncovered a gladiators’ cemetery, easily identified by tombstones that bore the names of these warriors. These stones were not just markers; they vividly depicted the gladiators’ battle gear, including helmets and shields, and even the palm fronds symbolizing victory.
The site revealed more than just names and symbols. The archaeologists found the actual skeletal remains of these gladiators. A closer look at the bones told a story of resilience and brutality. Many skeletons showed signs of past injuries that had healed over time, alongside the fatal wounds that ultimately led to their demise. The most striking find was a skull with three precise, evenly spaced holes — a clear indication of a brutal end by a retiarius, a type of gladiator who fought with a barbed trident and a weighted net.
Gladiators have always been a symbol of ancient Rome‘s grandeur and are a staple in Roman epic films. But these discoveries at Ephesus offer a rare, authentic glimpse into their lives and deaths, beyond the glamorized Hollywood portrayal. What does this tell us about the real experiences of these ancient warriors?
How much is known about the lives of gladiators?
The discovery of Pompeii and Herculaneum in the 18th century marked a significant turning point in our understanding of Roman gladiators and the broader Roman way of life. Before this, our knowledge was primarily based on ancient texts, random finds of stone sculptures and inscriptions, and the majestic amphitheaters scattered across the Roman empire.
The uncovering of these cities had a profound impact on the classically educated in Europe. They were suddenly presented with a tangible, detailed view of Roman life through a rich assortment of artifacts, graffiti, and paintings. These finds were not just historical; they were a vivid window into the past.
One such revelation was the temple of Isis in Pompeii, discovered in 1764, which confirmed the practice of exotic and esoteric eastern religions in Rome. Another significant find came two years later near the theater’s courtyard, where skeletons and a large cache of gladiatorial armor were found, identifying the area as a gladiator barracks. Among the dead was a woman adorned with jewelry, fueling speculations and myths about relationships between aristocratic women and gladiators, a topic often alluded to in ancient sources.
However, modern interpretations suggest a different story. The 18 skeletons found together are now seen as a group of people who were trying to escape the catastrophic volcanic eruption, rather than evidence of scandalous liaisons. This shift in perception illustrates how archaeological discoveries can both illuminate and challenge our understanding of history.
Arms of Gladiators
The discovery of bronze gladiatorial armor and weaponry has been pivotal in reconstructing the image of the ancient gladiator. Among the finds were 15 elaborately decorated helmets, featuring mythological scenes, and six galerus, unique shoulder guards.
Gladiators were categorized based on their armor and weapons, each designed to showcase various combat forms. This categorization meant that each gladiator had specific vulnerabilities, intentionally exposed to make the fights more challenging and engaging for the audience. A standard outfit for all gladiator types included a subligaculum (loincloth) and a balteus (broad belt).
The thraex (Thracian) and the hoplomachus, modeled after Greek hoplite soldiers, were among the most heavily armored. They wore padded leg guards and bronze greaves, as evidenced by the 14 greaves found in Pompeii. Their shields differed: rectangular for the thraex, armed with a short, curved sword, and round for the hoplomachus, equipped with a spear and short sword. Both types wore a padded arm guard (manica) on their weapon arm, leaving their shield arm and torso more exposed.
Their helmets, like those found in Pompeii, were heavy bronze with broad brims, high crests, and face guards, offering limited visibility through bronze grilles. Re-enactors have found that breathing in these helmets is challenging, a testament to the physical demands placed on ancient gladiators.
The murmillo, another gladiator type, also wore a large helmet and carried a short sword. Unlike the thraex and hoplomachus, he used a large rectangular shield for leg defense and wore armor on only one leg, with the other protected by padding and a greave.
The provocator and secutor also fought with a vulnerable leg and wore a manica only on their weapon arm. They had lighter helmets compared to the thraex, hoplomachus, and murmillo, and used a short sword and large shield. The secutor’s helmet was notably streamlined with small eye-holes and no decoration, resembling a fish’s head, matching the theme of his usual opponent, the retiarius.
The retiarius, perhaps the most distinctive gladiator class, had minimal protection. If right-handed, his left arm had a padded manica, and he wore a high shoulder-guard, the galerus, on his left shoulder. A galerus found in the Pompeii barracks was decorated with symbols of the sea. Uniquely, the retiarius wore no helmet but was armed with a trident, a short knife, and a lead-weighted net, designed to entrap his opponent, much like a fisherman catching a fish. This strategic balance of strength and vulnerability ensured fairness and spectacle in gladiatorial combat.
The retiarius, once his net was cast, had the tactical advantage of using his trident as a polearm. Here, the galerus, a shoulder guard, played a crucial role. When wielding the trident with both hands, the retiarius would lead with his left shoulder, and the galerus served as an effective head-guard.
A fascinating piece of evidence supporting this comes from a tomb relief of a retiarius in Romania, depicting him with what appears to be a four-bladed knife. The purpose of this weapon remained a mystery until a discovery at the Ephesus cemetery: a femur with a healed wound just above the knee, marked by four punctures resembling the pattern of a four on dice.
The lethal effectiveness of the retiarius’s equipment is underscored by the discovery of a skull in Ephesus with puncture wounds, likely caused by a retiarius’s trident. However, the retiarius didn’t always emerge victorious. A mosaic from Rome, now housed in Madrid, illustrates this vividly. It depicts a battle between a secutor named Astanax and the retiarius Kalendio. In the mosaic, Kalendio ensnares Astanax with his net, but when his trident gets entangled, Astanax manages to free himself and defeat Kalendio, who is then killed.
This mosaic also introduces another critical figure in gladiatorial combat: the summa rudis, or referee. Clad in a tunic and carrying a light wand, the summa rudis is a reminder that these fights were not chaotic brawls but were governed by a set of rules and rituals. These rules were well understood by the audience, who appreciated the gladiators’ skills and strategy as much as they were thrilled by the spectacle of combat. This nuanced understanding of gladiatorial contests adds depth to our perception of these ancient sports and their cultural significance.
Gladiators as Game for Fun
Gladiatorial events were more than just spectacles of combat; they were deeply intertwined with the social and political fabric of Roman society. The audience was well aware that these shows were often organized by prominent citizens, primarily as a means to advance their political careers and gain favor with the electorate. This link between entertainment and politics is evident from the walls of Pompeii, where election notices were found alongside advertisements for gladiatorial spectacles.
One such advertisement near the forum announced, “The gladiatorial troupe of Aulus Suettius Certus will fight at Pompeii on 31 May. There will be a hunt and awnings. Good fortune to all Neronian games.” This highlights the event’s appeal and the organizer’s prominence.
The popularity of these combats is further emphasized by the presence of graffiti on tombs, detailing the outcomes of specific fights. For example, a cartoon from nearby Nola shows two gladiators in combat, with a caption indicating that a novice, Marcus Attius, surprisingly defeated a seasoned fighter, Hilarius. Such inscriptions reveal that, contrary to popular belief, being a gladiator wasn’t a guaranteed path to a violent death. Many of the combats recorded in Pompeii ended with the loser being spared.
The structure behind these events involved a sponsor or editor who financed the games and commissioned a troupe (familia) of gladiators managed by a lanista, a combination of proprietor and trainer. An example from Pompeian graffiti is Marcus Mesonius, a known lanista. Gladiators, often sourced from slave markets, were legally low in Roman society, but a trained gladiator represented a significant investment for a lanista in terms of time and money. Therefore, it was in the lanista’s best interest to maintain the health of his gladiators and minimize deaths, balancing the spectacle’s allure with the practicalities of maintaining a skilled and valuable set of fighters.
Struggle for Survive
A graffito now housed in the Naples Museum provides revealing details about a gladiatorial show organized by Mesonius. Out of 18 gladiators who fought, the record shows eight victors, five who were defeated and spared, and three who were killed. This ratio, mirrored in other graffiti and tombstone records, suggests a balance between entertainment and the preservation of life in these spectacles. Even though some gladiators like an unnamed retiarius boasted significant numbers of victories, surviving more than a dozen fights was a rarity.
The forensic examination of the gladiator skeletons from Ephesus has granted us intimate insights into their lives and deaths. Among the 68 bodies found, 66 were adult males predominantly in their 20s, confirming a profile of young, strong athletes. Their enlarged muscle attachments attest to a rigorous training regime. Their diet, mainly consisting of grains and pulses, aligns with classical texts’ descriptions. Interestingly, a layer of fat was also essential for these fighters, serving as a buffer against cuts.
Medical care for gladiators appears to have been advanced for its time, as evidenced by numerous well-healed wounds, including head injuries, a properly set broken arm, and even a professionally executed leg amputation. The discovery of many individuals with single lethal wounds implies that death often came not from multiple injuries but from a final, decisive blow. This aligns with the idea of strict rules in the arena and the delivery of a coup de grâce.
The end of a gladiatorial bout involved a life-or-death decision by the editor of the games. Cicero’s writings reveal the expectation that a defeated gladiator should face his fate without flinching. If death was decreed, it was to be met calmly and executed swiftly.
Despite their popularity and skill, gladiators remained at the lowest social tier in Roman society. However, they could embody the Roman ideal of ‘virtus’—courage and valor in battle. Even as despised slaves, in their manner of fighting and dignified acceptance of death, gladiators could exhibit these esteemed qualities, subtly challenging the rigid social hierarchy of their time.
