The Abbasids were an Arab dynasty that initially controlled most of the Islamic empire (excluding certain western regions) after taking over the caliphate in 750 CE. Despite their empire later fracturing, they maintained spiritual authority as caliphs until 1258 CE. They assumed the caliphal position by overthrowing the ruling Umayyad Dynasty, making them the second dynasty to hold the Caliphate title (632-1924 CE, intermittently).
During the Crusades (1195-1291 CE), the Abbasids had significantly declined from their former glory. Their rule ended in 1258 CE when Baghdad was destroyed by the Mongols. Subsequently, a series of nominal caliphs continued under the control of the Mamluk Sultanate of Egypt (1250-1517 CE). In 1517 CE, after the Ottoman Sultan Selim I conquered the Mamluk Sultanate, the caliphate title was officially passed to the Turks, although they had been asserting their claim to it for some time. The era of Arab dominance over Islam came to an end with the fall of the Abbasids.
Prelude
The concept of caliphate originated in 632 CE following the death of Islamic Prophet Muhammad (570-632 CE). According to Sunni Muslims, the first four rulers belonged to the Rashidun Caliphate (632-661 CE), while Shia Muslims reject the first three as illegitimate claimants to the throne of the ‘Ahl al-Bayt’ – the Prophet’s household. They only recognize Ali (r. 656-661 CE), a cousin and son-in-law of the Prophet, as their spiritual leader or imam. After Ali’s assassination in 661 CE, Islamic history transitioned to absolute monarchy under the Umayyad Dynasty (661-750 CE).
The Umayyads were known for their effective administration and control over the realm through a combination of politics and military power. However, they struggled with issues such as alienation of different Arab and non-Arab groups, particularly the Shias and Persians. Towards the end of their rule, internal conflicts within the ruling family weakened their unity and authority. The final Umayyad ruler, Marwan II (r. 747-750 CE), faced widespread rebellion fueled by long-standing grievances and discontent among the population.
The Uprising of the Abbasids
Abbas ibn Abd al-Muttalib, a younger uncle of Muhammad, inspired a revolution led by his descendants, the Abbasids. The Abbasids aimed to give the ‘Ahl al-Bayt’ their rightful place on the caliphal throne, although the term’s interpretation differed between Shia Muslims and the Abbasids themselves.
The strategist behind this movement was Abu Muslim, whose identity remains shrouded in mystery. Nonetheless, he effectively ended Umayyad rule and paved the way for Abbasid dominance through careful planning and political maneuvering.
Despite efforts by Caliph Marwan to suppress the uprising, the Abbasid revolution gained momentum by 750 CE. After the killing of Ibrahim, the leader of the Abbasid clan, his brother Abu Abbas took charge and led the forces to victory against Marwan’s army at the Greater Zab river. Marwan was later killed, and Abu Abbas as-Saffah became the new caliph, exploiting Shia sentiments for the Abbasid cause.
The Beginning of Abbasid Dynasty
Following his victory at Zab, as-Saffah quickly moved most of his army to Central Asia to stop the expansion of the Chinese Tang Dynasty. The Tang Dynasty’s progress was halted at the battles of Talas in 751 CE, where the Muslims achieved a significant victory. This led to friendly relations and marked a new era in Islamic history, with the Abbasids focusing on consolidating their existing territories rather than expanding further.
As-Saffah sought revengeAl-Mansur was the second Abbasid caliph who founded the city of Baghdad in 762.The Abbasids had previously lacked a capital of their own, but al-Mansur changed that by establishing Baghdad near the Tigris River, surpassing European cities of the time in grandeur. Al-Mansur, like his brother, committed brutal acts against the descendants of Ali, suspecting them of plotting against
Al-Mahdi and His Children
Al-Mahdi (775-785 CE) was known for his generosity and piety, contrasting with his father al-Mansur. He made efforts to right the wrongs done by his father against the Alids, releasing their captives and compensating them generously. His beloved, Al-Khayzuran (d. 789 CE), was a former slave whom he elevated to the status of queen.
Despite his benevolence, Al-Mahdi was also a strong leader who responded firmly to Byzantine incursions into Muslim territories. The conflicts that arose led to gains for the Rashidun Caliphate, particularly as locals in newly conquered lands preferred Muslim rule over Byzantine persecution. The Abbasids maintained control over these territories, thwarting Byzantine attempts to expand further.
In 782 CE, Al-Mahdi sent his son Harun al-Rashid to confront Empress Irene’s forces, resulting in Byzantine concessions after facing military setbacks. Unfortunately, Al-Mahdi’s reign was cut short when he was poisoned by a concubine, leading to his son al-Hadi taking the throne briefly before Harun succeeded him.
Al-Hadi, on the other hand, did not feel obligated to follow his father’s agreement and openly stated his intention to pass the throne to his sons. He also resented his mother’s significant influence over the ministers and made efforts to diminish her power (some even suggest he tried to harm her). However, fate intervened, and the young ruler passed away in his youth. While some believe he fell victim to an untreatable illness, others suspect that his timely demise was too convenient to be mere chance. The circumstances surrounding his death remain a topic of ongoing discussion and speculation.
The Era of Prosperity
Caliph Harun al-Rashid of the Abbasid Dynasty, who ruled from 786 to 809 CE, was known for his remarkable personality and support for arts and learning. He aimed for Muslims to excel in these areas and established the Grand Library of Baghdad, also known as the House of Wisdom, to facilitate this goal. The translation of Greek works into Arabic at this library played a significant role in inspiring the Renaissance in Europe.
Harun’s reign marked a period of flourishing learning, even though he preferred delegating administrative tasks to capable individuals. His government made notable advancements in administration and demonstrated military prowess when faced with threats, such as the Byzantine invasion in 806 CE. In response to an insulting letter from the Byzantine emperor, Harun swiftly prepared for battle, personally led his forces, and achieved a decisive victory that compelled the Byzantines to agree to further humiliating terms of peace.
During Harun’s rule, a significant shift in power dynamics occurred as the caliphs previously held complete authority over the Islamic realm. The western province of Ifriqya posed challenges due to its costly upkeep and rebellious locals who often defied caliphal rule. A statesman named Ibrahim ibn Aghlab proposed a solution to Harun: he requested the region be granted to him and his family as a principality in exchange for pledging allegiance to the Caliph and paying an annual tribute. This led to the establishment of the Aghlabids (800-909 CE) in Ifriqya, marking the beginning of the decline of Harun’s empire.
Harun faced another challenge in deciding his successor among his sons, al-Amin and al-Ma’mun. Although he favored al-Amin to inherit the throne (r. 809-813 CE), he planned to divide the realm between the two brothers, with al-Ma’mun ruling as a subordinate to the Caliph and his heir. However, this plan ultimately failed.
Following Harun’s death, a civil war erupted between his sons, leading to widespread turmoil known as the Fourth Fitna or the great Abbasid civil war (811-819 CE; with regional unrest continuing until the 830s CE). Initially, al-Amin had the advantage but faced defeats in battle, leaving Baghdad as his last stronghold. After a prolonged siege by al-Ma’mun’s forces, al-Amin surrendered and was later killed while in captivity by rogue Persian soldiers. Some accounts suggest that al-Ma’mun was genuinely saddened by his brother’s death and sought to avenge him by adopting his nephews and punishing the perpetrators.
Caliph al-Ma’mun, who ruled from 813 to 833 CE, took over after a period considered the golden age of Islam. Despite the end of the war with his brother, it took more than ten years for stability to return. Al-Ma’mun had a strong interest in arts and learning, surpassing even his father’s, but his attempts to modernize society by challenging fundamental Islamic beliefs, such as suggesting the Quran could be changed, caused him to lose favor among many Islamic scholars and historians.
Decline in Power
Following the death of al-Ma’mun, the Abbasid dynasty experienced a significant decline both morally and politically. Successors like al-Mu’tasim and al-Wathik allowed their Turkish bodyguards to gain excessive influence at court, leading to a weakening of Abbasid authority. The downfall was sealed when al-Mutawakkil was assassinated in a coup orchestrated by the Turks, further diminishing Abbasid power. The rise of the Fatimids in 909 CE, descendants of the Prophet’s daughter Fatima, challenged Abbasid rule and expanded their control over regions like Egypt and the Hejaz. In 929 CE, the Umayyad Emirate of Cordoba also declared itself a caliphate.
The Abbasids faced further humiliation with the emergence of the Buyids, an Iranian Shia dynasty that captured Baghdad in 945 CE, effectively controlling the Abbasid capital. As different local rulers declared independence, the Abbasid realm began to fracture. The Seljuk Turks, who embraced Sunni Islam, emerged as a new threat and took over Baghdad in 1055 CE, displacing the Buyids. Despite these changes in power, the Abbasid caliphs continued to be manipulated by various ruling factions, leading to the fragmentation of the empire.
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The Crusades
The Crusades were a series of religious wars sanctioned by the Latin Church in the medieval period. During the 11th century CE, the Seljuks initially appeared to be a dominant force but by the end of the century, they had weakened significantly. When European nobles arrived in the Holy Land in 1096 CE, the Seljuks were divided and unable to resist. The Abbasids, who were considered leaders of the Muslim community, were passive observers as the Seljuks avoided conflict.
The situation in Egypt and the Holy Land changed with the emergence of Saladin and his commitment to Jihad. Saladin, a Sunni leader, rose to power in Egypt in 1169 CE, ended Fatimid rule in 1171 CE, and brought the former Fatimid territories under Abbasid control. He revitalized the Muslim cause in the Holy Land and dedicated himself to fighting against the Crusaders. His victory at the Battle of Hattin in 1187 CE weakened the Crusaders, leading to their eventual expulsion from Acre in 1291 CE by the Mamluk Sultanate.
Behind the scenes of the Crusades, the Abbasids were reclaiming their authority. Caliph al-Mustarshid (r. 1092-1135 CE) began building a caliphal army, which was further developed by al-Muktafi (r. 1136-1160 CE) who declared autonomy for his house. The Seljuks besieged Baghdad in 1157 CE in response, but were unsuccessful in capturing the city. Al-Nasir (d. 1225 CE) also played a significant role in restoring Abbasid prestige through administrative reforms and territorial expansion. He is recognized as the last effective Abbasid ruler.
The Capture of Baghdad & Its Consequences
The newfound independence of the Muslim world faced a threat from the Mongols, who were transformed into a formidable force under Genghis Khan in 1206 CE. The last formal caliph, al-Must’asim (r. 1242-1258 CE), made a critical error by disbanding much of his army and accepting a challenge from Hulegu Khan. The reasons for this decision are debated, but it is evident that the Caliph expected military support from across the Islamic world, not realizing that other Muslim states were preoccupied with their own issues.
In 1258 CE, the Mongol forces laid siege to Baghdad and, following their brutal tactics, destroyed the entire city, including significant structures like the Bayt al-Hikma, and massacred its inhabitants. The Caliph met a gruesome end, being rolled in a carpet and trampled by horses. Most of the royal family perished, except for a young boy sent to Mongolia and a princess enslaved in Hulegu’s harem. The Mongol advance was halted by the Mamluk Sultanate at the Battle of Ain Jalut in 1260 CE. Subsequently, the Mamluks installed a line of Abbasid rulers as symbolic caliphs in Cairo, though they held no real power. In 1517 CE, Sultan Selim I of the Ottoman Empire conquered Mamluk territories and assumed the caliphal title for his lineage.
In conclusion
The Abbasid propaganda effectively undermined the Umayyads, but ironically, the Abbasids adopted similar administrative policies once in power. They inherited a smaller empire after losing Spain permanently, marking the beginning of the Islamic empire’s fragmentation under their rule. The Abbasids showed no interest in expanding further and even sought alliances with European powers against the Emirate of Cordoba.
Many Abbasid rulers lacked political acumen and relied on others to govern. Cracks in the Arab-centric framework, which began during al-Ma’mun’s reign due to his Persian heritage, worsened after his death as the dynasty became beholden to external influences. Despite efforts by later caliphs to strengthen the Abbasids, they faced numerous challenges. The fall of Baghdad marked the inevitable decline of the once-mighty empire. The Abbasid legacy endures through the influence of sharia law and their support for arts, education, and scientific exploration, shaping the modern world as we know it.
