In ancient times, the territories around the Gulf of Aden were bustling centers of commerce, producing and trading large quantities of incense and fragrant woods. From the Egyptian Pharaoh Queen Hatshepsut’s era to the Roman Empire, this region played a pivotal role in the international trade networks that shaped ancient civilizations.
The Strategic Importance of the Red Sea
The Red Sea provided a critical route for bypassing Nubia and establishing direct trade with Somalia. The Ptolemies utilized this route to stage elephant hunting expeditions along the east coast of Africa. During the Augustan era, Rome dominated Red Sea trade, making it the primary conduit for East African products entering the Empire.
Strabo, a prominent Greek geographer, confirmed that most aromatics were transported via the Nile to Alexandria. The cost-effectiveness of sea transport—nearly thirty times cheaper than land haulage—made the Red Sea route highly advantageous for Roman merchants. A single cargo of 30 tons of frankincense could be worth over a million sesterces in Roman markets.
Below Egypt, the African shoreline of the Red Sea was largely desolate, inhabited by coastal fishermen and inland hunter-gatherer nomads. Roman sailors referred to this part of Africa as the “Country of the Barbaroi” or the “Troglodytes.” The first significant trade station Roman ships encountered was Ptolemais Theron, founded by Greek mercenaries for elephant hunting. However, by the Roman period, it had become a small port of trade, primarily offering turtle-shell.
The Rise of the Aksumite Kingdom
By AD 50, Ptolemais Theron was under the control of the Aksumite Kingdom, ruled by King Zoskales. The main Aksumite port was Adulis, about 340 miles south of Theron. Adulis, known as “Freeman’s Town,” became a bustling trade center under Aksumite control, exporting large quantities of turtle-shell, ivory, rhinoceros horn, and other exotic goods.
Adulis served as a hub for traffic from both sides of the Red Sea, with ships from Yemen frequently visiting. The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, a Roman merchant guidebook, describes Adulis as a “legally limited port of trade” positioned on a deep bay (Zula Gulf in modern Eritrea). Due to frequent raids from the mainland, Roman traders moved their operations offshore to Oreine Island for better protection.
The Aksumites controlled the ivory trade, sending it to Adulis via the city of Koloe. Aksum, the kingdom’s capital, was a metropolis situated in the fertile highlands of northern Ethiopia, abundant with forest elephants and white rhinos. Roman merchants traveled from Adulis to Aksum, trading for ivory and other goods.
King Zoskales was known for his hard bargaining but maintained good relations with Roman traders. He was well-versed in Greek, reading and writing, which facilitated smoother trade negotiations. The prime exports from Aksum included ivory and turtle-shell, which were highly valued in Roman markets for crafting luxurious furniture and ornaments.
Roman Luxury and Consumerism
The Roman elite developed an obsession with lavish decorations, using ivory and turtle-shell to adorn their homes. This consumer fashion led to a significant demand for these materials, driving up their prices. Roman poets and writers often criticized the excesses of their contemporaries, highlighting the immense wealth spent on such luxuries.
Martial, a Roman poet, ridiculed a wealthy acquaintance for spending a million sesterces on furniture. Similarly, Juvenal and other writers denounced the pursuit of opulent decorations, emphasizing the moral decay it represented. Despite the criticism, the demand for these exotic materials remained high, fueling trade with the Aksumite Kingdom.
The Somali Far-Side Markets
Roman ships continued their voyages down the east coast of Africa, reaching the Far-Side markets in Somalia. These ports, facing southern Arabia, were key trade hubs for incense, myrrh, cassia, and cinnamon. Roman traders navigated through the narrow straits of Bab-el-Mandeb to reach these markets.
The first major Somali port was Avalites, followed by Malao, Mundu, and Mosyllon, each offering unique products. Mosyllon was particularly significant for its large quantities of cassia. These markets provided Roman merchants with valuable goods in exchange for low-value Roman products like used clothing, glass stones, and tin.
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Beyond the Horn of Africa
Beyond the Horn of Africa, Roman ships reached Opone, a market offering high-quality slaves and turtle-shell. This was the limit of Roman voyages along the east coast of Africa, nearly 1500 miles from the Empire’s southern frontiers. Some Roman ships, returning from India in November, also visited these Somali markets to trade Indian goods for African incense.
Arab merchants extended the trade routes further down the east coast of Africa to Kenya and Tanzania. They managed these routes using small dhow-like vessels with lateen sails. The primary product shipped through these routes was the large tusks of Bush Elephants, as North African elephant populations dwindled.
Early Roman merchants learned about these routes from Arab traders. The Periplus details a series of sailing-runs along the Kenyan and Tanzanian coasts, culminating in the trade-station of Rhapta. Rhapta, under Arab control, was a significant port for ivory and turtle-shell.
The Limits of Roman Exploration
Roman ships ventured as far as Rhapta, about 3000 miles from the Empire, marking the southern limit of their African trade expeditions. Beyond Rhapta lay unexplored territories, with Roman captains speculating about the possibility of sailing from the Indian Ocean into the Atlantic. However, the established Red Sea route offered a faster and safer return to the Empire.
In conclusion, the Aksumite Kingdom and its trade relations with the Roman Empire highlight the complexity and interconnectedness of ancient commerce. The exchange of goods, culture, and knowledge between these civilizations played a crucial role in shaping the economic and social landscapes of their time.
