Natural disasters often mark significant moments in history, shaping our collective understanding of the past. In the mid-fourth century, Ammianus Marcellinus highlighted the profound impact of the Antonine Plague that ravaged the Roman Empire in the second century. The plague spread death and disease from the Persian frontiers to Gaul, leaving a lasting mark on the empire.
A Golden Age? The Roman Empire on the Eve of the Antonine Plague
The Antonine Plague was one of the most devastating pandemics of ancient times, altering the course of Roman history significantly. Before the outbreak, the Roman Empire was experiencing a period of prosperity and stability. Stretching from northern Britain to the Arabian Peninsula, the empire was at its peak, despite not being as expansive as during Trajan’s rule. The transition of power between emperors had been relatively smooth, with minimal political turmoil compared to previous successions. Even controversies surrounding Hadrian’s succession did not disrupt the overall political calm of the time.
Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus were adopted by Emperor Antoninus Pius to succeed him in a childless environment. When Antoninus Pius passed away in 161 CE, Marcus and Lucius assumed imperial power, with Marcus being the more experienced of the two. However, early signs of trouble emerged in Rome as a deadly flood in 1612 CE caused significant death and destruction due to the Tiber River overflowing.
Simultaneously, issues were brewing on the eastern frontiers of the Roman Empire. Following Antoninus Pius’ death, the Parthian Empire, led by Vologases IV, attacked Rome by invading Armenia in late 161 CE and ousting the Roman client king. An attempt at retaliation by Rome ended in disaster when the governor’s army was ambushed and massacred, leading to his suicide. In response, Lucius Verus was sent with an army to restore Roman authority. By 163 CE, Roman forces under Verus recaptured the Armenian capital, Artaxata, earning him the title Armeniacus for his conquest.
The Parthians launched a campaign against Osroene, a Roman client kingdom in Mesopotamia. Two Roman armies were sent to restore Roman control. By 165 CE, the first army retook the Osroene capital of Edessa and reinstated the former king. The second army, led by Avidius Cassius, sacked Ctesiphon and compelled Seleucia to open its gates.
Despite initial Roman victories, Cassius’ army faced challenges deep in enemy territory. A devastating pestilence struck the Roman forces, spreading as they traveled back up the Euphrates. This sickness likely caused the sudden death of Emperor Lucius Verus on the Danubian frontier, possibly brought back by his soldiers from their conquests.
What Was the Antonine Plague?
In Roman history, pestilence and plague were often believed to be caused by the anger of the gods. Livy mentioned a ceremony called lectisternium introduced in 399 BCE by the Romans to appease the gods during a pestilence that afflicted the city. The Antonine Plague was also thought to be a result of divine retribution. The Historia Augusta, though not always reliable, claimed that the illness was punishment for Cassius’ sack of Seleucia, a city that had welcomed the Romans. This belief in divine punishment for such actions was also echoed by Ammianus Marcellinus centuries later, showing the enduring tradition of attributing plagues to divine wrath.
The origins of the Antonine plague remain a mystery, as ancient epidemiology is challenging due to limited evidence. Historians believe it was likely an outbreak of smallpox, which could explain why there was a lull in the disease before resurfacing during Commodus’ reign. The mortality of the disease had a significant impact on the Roman Empire.
Rome’s Most Famous Doctor: Galen and the Antonine Plague
Historical sources, including papyrological evidence from Egypt, paint a grim picture of life during the Antonine Plague. There were reductions in farmland leases, fewer taxpayers, and a disruption in imperial administration. This suggests a probable population decrease during that time.
Historians have detailed accounts of various plagues in the ancient world, such as Thucydides’ description of the devastating plague in Athens before the Antonine Plague. However, there is a lack of contemporary historical records for the Antonine Plague. Fortunately, one of the most valuable sources on this plague is Galen, a renowned physician from the ancient world.
Galen, born around 129 CE in Pergamon, Asia Minor, gained prominence in Rome in 162 CE and became the personal physician to several emperors, including Marcus Aurelius, Lucius Verus, Commodus, Septimius Severus, and Caracalla. His detailed accounts of the symptoms and effects of the Antonine Plague have made him a significant source of information on this pandemic. In fact, the plague is sometimes referred to as the Plague of Galen due to his association with it, overshadowing even the emperors of that time.
Galen’s observations of the plague were brief and scattered, but his writings provide a clear picture of the disease and its symptoms. Symptoms included fever, vomiting, ulcers, and catarrh, giving insight into how the population suffered during the plague years. The plague also affected Galen’s household, leading to the death of several slaves. Some excerpts from Galen’s writings suggest that the disease could be identified as smallpox. In 1689 CE, while traveling with the imperial household at Aquileia, Galen noted that the combination of the plague and harsh winter months was particularly deadly. Harsh winters are known to facilitate the spread of smallpox, as seen in more recent outbreaks of the disease.
Rome, China, and the Antonine Plague
In the ancient world, despite slower and more challenging travel, civilizations were interconnected through trade routes like the Silk Roads, linking Europe and Asia. Unfortunately, these routes also facilitated the spread of diseases. Thucydides, describing the devastation caused by the Plague of Athens, mentioned that it was believed the sickness had arrived in the city from overseas, originating from Ethiopia, then spreading to Egypt, Libya, and eventually reaching Athens through the port of Piraeus.
There is a possibility that the plague that affected Rome during the Antonine period originated from distant lands, possibly even beyond the Parthian Empire. In the mid-2nd century, the Han Dynasty in China also experienced a severe plague. Chinese doctor Ge Hong described symptoms similar to smallpox, suggesting both Han China and the Roman Empire were battling this disease.
The Silk Roads connected China, the Parthian Empire, and Rome, indicating the sickness may have started in Central Asia before spreading to the two empires. In 166 CE, a delegation claiming to be from Rome visited Emperor Huan’s court in China, further suggesting connections between the civilizations through trade, as supported by archaeological findings.
The Antonine Plague and the End of Rome’s Golden Age
The Roman Empire faced devastating plagues in the future, such as the Plague of Cyprian in the mid-third century and the Plague of Justinian in the sixth century. The Antonine Plague had a lasting impact on the empire, as seen through Ammianus’ account of the pestilence. Even after the death of Emperor Lucius Verus, the empire continued to suffer from the effects of the Antonine plague.
The pandemic subsided for a few years but resurged in the 180s, culminating in around 189 CE with a severe outbreak described vividly by Cassius Dio. Dio, a senatorial historian who witnessed the reigns of emperors from Marcus Aurelius to Severus Alexander, was in Rome when the city was struck again by a deadly disease, resulting in two thousand deaths in a single day.
In addition to the disease, Dio lamented the empire’s fate under the rule of Commodus, Marcus Aurelius’ son, who ascended to power in 180 CE. Commodus descended into megalomania, engaging in gladiatorial spectacles and comparing himself to Hercules. Cassius Dio remarked that the transition from Marcus Aurelius to Commodus symbolized a shift from a golden age to one of decline and decay in the empire.
Commodus cannot be held responsible for the devastation caused by the plague. The Antonine Plague, which occurred during his father’s reign, greatly impacted Roman power in the later years of the second century. This event contributed to the decline of Rome’s Golden Age.
