When discussing Christianity’s history in China, many people think of the Jesuit missionaries from the Early Modern Period. Yet, nearly a thousand years earlier, a robust Christian community existed in medieval China during the Tang Dynasty (618-907 CE). This group was part of the Church of the East, an early church that originated in the Sasanian Empire.
The Christian population in Tang China flourished as long as the emperors were open-minded towards different beliefs. However, this changed under Emperor Wuzong (841-846 CE), who prohibited all foreign religions.
China’s Golden Age
After enduring a lengthy period of division and civil strife between northern and southern regions, China was united again during the Sui Dynasty (581-617). Emperor Wendi (581-604) successfully revitalized the government system and centralized power from the rebuilt city of Chang’an. The Great Canal’s construction from 605 to 609 CE further unified the Empire economically. Even though the Sui Dynasty had a brief reign, it established a strong foundation for the wealth and influence that China would later enjoy during the Tang Dynasty. The end of the Sui Dynasty was marked by a rebellion against Emperor Yangdi (604-617), driven by dissatisfaction over his failed military campaigns in Korea. General Li Yuan led this uprising and ascended to the throne as Emperor Gaozu (618-626), signaling the start of the Tang Era.
During the leadership of his successors, Taizong (626-649) and Gaozong (649-683), China saw significant territorial growth. They achieved this through a number of successful military campaigns against Turkic tribes in the east, which allowed them to gain control over the Silk Road.
Trade with other Asian nations flourished through both land and sea routes. This trade expansion ushered in an era of economic, social, and cultural growth in early Tang Period China. Many foreigners settled in major trading hubs, primarily from nearby countries and other Asian regions. They mainly engaged in commerce but also contributed to the rich cultural landscape of China during this time.
A variety of cultural expressions thrived amid this time of stability and prosperity, including art, poetry, and fashion. The capital city, Chang’an, became home to many artists, such as Zhang Xuan (c. 713-755). Additionally, Tang China served as an influential model for neighboring countries like Korea and Japan, who sought to learn from the experiences of Tang rulers to enhance their own states.
The early emperors of the Tang Dynasty, similar to the rulers of the Sui Dynasty before them, were strong supporters of Buddhism, which became a key element of Chinese culture and society. A large number of Buddhist temples were established across the nation, benefiting both cultural and economic growth. However, this support for Buddhism did not diminish the significance of traditional Chinese faiths like Confucianism and Taoism, which remained influential in society.
During peaceful periods, emperors were open to various religions that emerged in China at the time. In Chang’an, the capital city, diverse religious communities, including Zoroastrians, Muslims, and Manichaeans, coexisted and flourished. The early Tang emperors helped transform China into a multicultural and cosmopolitan empire, paving the way for Christians to integrate with other religious groups during this era.
The Church of the East: An Overview of Its Early Journey
To grasp the history of Christians in China, it’s essential to explore the church they were part of, which requires taking a look back several centuries. The Church of the East is an ancient institution that originated in Persia. Christianity made its entrance into Persia during the 1st and 2nd centuries CE, amidst the Parthian Empire. The exact means of Christianity’s arrival in Persia remains unclear, but one theory suggests it was introduced by Greek-speaking survivors from the Roman Empire seeking refuge from persecution. Medieval historian Wilhelm Baum noted that the first Christians originated from Jewish communities in Persia. In addition to these communities, early Christians in Persia also comprised local Persians, Arab tribes, and Aramaic speakers, who represented the majority during that time.
By the latter part of the 3rd century CE, Persian Christians had formed their own episcopal framework. As the 4th century CE began, the bishop of Seleucia-Ctesiphon succeeded in asserting authority over all other bishops, leading to the establishment of the Church of the East.
With the emergence of the Sasanian Empire in the 3rd century CE, Zoroastrianism became the state religion. Consequently, Christians experienced occasional persecution throughout the 4th century CE. However, the situation shifted under the reign of Yazdegerd I (399-424).
During the early 5th century CE, the Church of the East organized itself under the leadership of the Bishop of Seleucia-Ctesiphon. It gradually separated from the Church of the Roman Empire, declaring its independence in 424. Nonetheless, at the Council of Seleucia-Ctesiphon in 410, the Church of the East accepted the doctrines established at the First Ecumenical Council in 325. The decisions made at the Council of Ephesus in 431, which condemned Patriarch Nestorius of Constantinople, were not recognized. Nestorius argued that the title “Theotokos” (Mother of God) for the Virgin Mary was unsuitable and that only “Christotokos” (Mother of Christ) should be used. After this, the Church of the East refrained from participating in any further ecumenical councils. As a result, the Church of the East has often been inaccurately labeled as “Nestorian.” The beliefs about Christ’s nature in the Church of the East were largely shaped by Theodore of Mopsuestia, associated with the Antiochian school of thought. This perspective held that Jesus Christ possessed two distinct natures, which contrasted with the official doctrine of the Roman Empire that taught these natures were united.
In the 5th and 6th centuries CE, the Church of the East expanded throughout the territories of the Sasanian Empire, where they became a notable religious minority. During the 6th century CE, monasticism gained popularity, leading to the establishment of numerous new monasteries.
When conflicts erupted between the Byzantines and the Sasanians, Christians in Persia experienced renewed persecution. Nevertheless, under the leadership of strong patriarchs like Mar Abba I the Great (540-552), the Church of the East not only survived but flourished.
During this era, the Church of the East extended its reach beyond the Sasanian Empire, making inroads among Arab tribes, into Central Asia, and even to distant lands like India and Sri Lanka. Remarkably, the church endured through the Arab conquests of the 7th century CE. Under the rule of Muslim Caliphs, the Church of the East was classified as part of the ahl-al-dhimma, meaning they were granted religious freedom in exchange for paying taxes to the state.
A Golden Age of Christianity
A Golden Age of Christianity in China unfolded during this time as well. For many years, not much was understood about the history of Christianity in China until European missionaries arrived. This changed when the “Nestorian Stele” was found in Xian during the early 17th century. Standing at 2.79 meters (or 9 feet 2 inches) tall and 99 centimeters (about 39 inches) wide, this stele was erected in 781 CE and features inscriptions in Chinese, with some lines written in Syriac at the end.
The text was written by a monk named Adam, who is also known as Qing-Qing in Chinese. The Xian Stele provides information about the arrival of Christian missionaries from Syria during Emperor Taizong’s reign (626-649). Leading this mission was the Syrian monk Alopen, who came to Chang’an in 635 and presented Christian scriptures to the emperor. This led to an imperial decree in 638 that permitted Christian missionary work in the country. Consequently, a Christian monastery was quickly established in Chang’an to accommodate 21 monks.
As per the emperor’s instructions, the Christian holy texts brought by Alopen were translated and kept in the imperial library. Alopen most likely represented an official mission from the Sasanian Empire on behalf of the last Sasanian ruler, Yazdegerd III (632-651). His son, Peroz III, who was living in exile in China after the Arab conquests, contributed to building another Christian monastery in 677 CE. In Chinese records, Christian monasteries are referred to as “Ta-qin monasteries.” “Ta-qin” was the term used for the Roman Empire or the Middle East, depending on the situation.
In the years that followed, Christianity thrived in China. It received backing from Gaozong (649-683), Taizong’s successor, along with many influential figures in the empire. The Xian Stele indicates that Gaozong permitted the construction of Christian churches and monasteries throughout all provinces of the empire. While this doesn’t confirm that monasteries were established in every province, it suggests a significant spread of Christianity during that time.
Beyond central China, Christianity also extended to neighboring countries, Tibet, and among the Uyghur people. The Church in China was formally organized as the Metropolitan Province of Beth Sinaye under Patriarch Saliba (714-728).
Several Christian priests achieved notable positions and acted as advisors or even military generals. For instance, General Issu, an Iranian priest by birth, served alongside Lord Guo Ziyi. His real name was Yazdebod, and he played a vital role in safeguarding the northern borders of the empire. He was a major supporter of Christian communities, and his contributions are highlighted on the Xian Stele.
Art and Literature
The narrative of Christianity during the Tang dynasty spans two centuries, with a limited number of Christian texts in Chinese still available today. Christian monks and priests dedicated considerable effort to translating these texts into Chinese. In the 780s CE, an Indian scholar named Pradschna lived in China and assisted a monk named Adam, known in Chinese as Qinq-Qing, with translations. By the close of the 10th century, approximately 500 texts had been translated into Chinese, including the entire New Testament and portions of the Old Testament. Out of the 500 texts, very few remain today. The oldest among them are the Book of Jesus, the Messiah, and On the One God, which were possibly authored by Alopen between 635-638 and 641 CE. An inscription on a memorial pillar from Luoyang, built in 814/815 CE, includes the text known as Teaching on the Origin of Origins of the Da Qin Luminous Religion. Additionally, another pillar features an epitaph for a Sogdian Christian woman adorned with images of a cross and angels with wings.
Other surviving Chinese Christian writings include the Book of Praise, likely penned by Qing-Qing in the late 8th century, the Book of Venerable Men and Sacred Books, composed around 906-1036, and the Book of the Origin of the Enlightening Religion of Ta Qin, written before 1036.
There are also some remnants of Chinese Christian art that have endured. A silk painting depicting a Christian figure with a halo, dating back to the 9th century, was discovered in the Mogao Caves. The painted male figure has a halo and a winged crown with a cross, and his right hand gesture borrows from Buddhism, symbolizing the teaching of a doctrine. This artwork may represent either Jesus Christ or a saint. At the start of the 20th century, three frescoes were discovered within the remains of a Christian temple in Kocho, with two still intact. The first fresco may illustrate a Palm Sunday celebration, showing a Middle Eastern man—likely a deacon or priest—facing three worshippers. Alternatively, it could represent a ceremonial greeting influenced by Buddhism. The second fresco, which is smaller, portrays the theme of Repentance. Unfortunately, the third fresco is now lost, but it originally depicted Jesus’ entry into Jerusalem.
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Persecutions and Decline
By the late 8th century, the Christian community in China had reached its peak. However, most adherents were foreigners, including Iranians, Sogdians, Turks, and Uyghurs, with very few Chinese individuals converting to Christianity as it was still viewed as an outsider religion.
Baum indicates that during the mid-9th century, there were around 260,000 Christians in China. The continuation of the Christian presence depended heavily on the kindness of emperors and local leaders. When peace prevailed and rulers endorsed religious tolerance, Christians could practice freely, but in times of unrest, they often faced hostility from rulers towards foreigners and foreign faiths.
The first instances of persecution against Christians in China occurred under Empress Wu (683-705). A staunch Buddhist, she elevated Buddhism to the status of state religion in 691 and targeted followers of other religions, including Christians. During her reign, numerous monasteries were attacked and destroyed. These persecutions subsided during the rule of Emperor Xuanzong I (713-756). Christians faced their ultimate decline during Wuzong’s rule from 841 to 846. Being a devout Taoist, he opposed all religions he deemed foreign. In 843, he prohibited Manichaeism and later expanded his persecutions to other faiths, including Buddhism. His decree in 845 specifically targeted “Persian religions,” which included Zoroastrianism and Christianity, mandating that all followers of these religions leave China.
In the following century, Christianity vanished entirely from China. The Tang Dynasty fell in 907, leading to another era of civil war and unrest. This turmoil disrupted trade routes with the West, severing the remaining Christians’ ties to their patriarch.
Around the year 980, patriarch Abdisho I dispatched six monks to China to assess the situation. They found that Christianity had been completely wiped out. Churches and monasteries were destroyed, leaving only one Christian behind. However, this did not signify the end of Christianity in China,
