Recent archaeological finds and a fresh look at older records indicate that Egypt’s reunification happened in the final ten years of Ahmose’s 25-year rule (1550-1525 BC). Ahmose, the first king of the 18th Dynasty, likely saw the official start of his dynasty around 1530 BC. However, the wheels were already in motion during his reign. The early state of Egypt in this era was largely a continuation of existing practices and traditions, which had remained intact despite internal conflicts in the Second Intermediate Period. These enduring traditions likely helped the 17th Dynasty rulers, who were Ahmose’s predecessors, to build their power among influential families in Upper Egypt. As Ahmose and his successors solidified their dynasty, they adapted and introduced certain aspects of kingship. These changes, along with external influences from the northeast and south, had a significant impact on the trajectory of the 18th Dynasty.
Ahmose and the Beginning of the New Kingdom
The tomb inscriptions of Ahmose, son of Ibana in Elkab, detail the victories of King Ahmose over the Hyksos, including the siege of Sharuhen in southern Palestine and military campaigns in Kush, near the third Nile cataract. Although Ahmose began the Nubian campaign, it was completed by Amenhotep I (1525-1504 BC), with monuments on the island of Sai celebrating both rulers’ victories. It’s likely that Amenhotep I erected these monuments, though Ahmose’s involvement in the region is undisputed.
At Avaris (Tell el-Dab’a), archaeological layers from the early 18th Dynasty bear Ahmose’s name and those of his successors. This period saw significant buildings adorned with Minoan frescoes, hinting at increased Aegean contact, possibly through commissioned artists. The tomb of Queen Ahhotep I, Ahmose’s mother, in Thebes, reveals Aegean influences in Egyptian artifacts, showing a shared appreciation for foreign elements in both the Delta and Thebes. While Egyptian small-trade items are found in Crete and Greece, direct diplomatic ties between Egypt and Crete in this era remain uncertain. The early 18th Dynasty saw a brief flourishing of an Aegean-influenced style, which eventually gave way to traditional Egyptian iconography, with only a few elements like the ‘flying-gallop’ motif persisting and being adapted.
In Avaris, Ahmose’s immediate construction projects included a palace complex, identified by Manfred Bietak’s excavations, that integrated Minoan design elements. This palace, adjacent to a Hyksos fortification, was likely part of Ahmose’s broader building initiatives in the Delta, positioning Avaris as a key administrative and commercial hub. Additionally, Memphis underwent redevelopment during this period, with evidence of resettlement as early as Ahmose’s reign.
Temple monuments from the latter part of Ahmose’s rule laid the groundwork for traditional pharaonic building programs. These honored deities from the Middle Kingdom such as Ptah, Amun, Montu, and Osiris. Ahmose’s devotion to the moon-god Iah, as evidenced in his name and the inscriptions on Ahhotep I and Kamose’s jewelry, was significant. Notably, post-Year 17 or 18 monuments of Ahmose feature a unique lunar crescent symbol in his name. As the first ruler in over a century to build monuments for gods in both southern and northern Egypt, Ahmose initiated quarrying in Maasara for construction projects in Memphis and Thebes, though only some Theban structures survive today.
Ahmose focused his early construction efforts in Avaris, the former Hyksos stronghold he reclaimed. Archaeologist Manfred Bietak’s digs unearthed an 18th Dynasty palace there, intriguingly adjacent to a Hyksos wall. This palace, adorned with Minoan frescoes, is thought to be Ahmose’s work. It’s clear Ahmose had ambitions for Avaris, likely envisioning it as a key administrative and commercial hub for his new government.
At the same time, Memphis underwent a significant transformation. As the river shifted eastward, new land emerged and was quickly put to use. Evidence from this period, including ceramics and royal seals, suggests that during Ahmose’s reign, Memphis saw a revival, likely a resettlement post-conflict between Thebes and Avaris.
During the latter years of his reign, Ahmose laid the groundwork for a classic pharaonic building program, honoring gods like Ptah, Amun, Montu, and Osiris, whose temples had thrived in the Middle Kingdom. Ahmose’s deep respect for Egypt’s traditional deities is evident. His connection with the moon-god Iah, reflected in his name, is especially highlighted in inscriptions on jewelry belonging to Ahhotep I and Kamose (1555-1550 BC), where he is referred to as ‘son of the moon-god, Iah’. Despite the frequent occurrence of ‘Ah’ in royal names, Iah’s primary cult center remains a mystery. Around the time of Egypt’s reunification, Ahmose began using a unique lunar crescent symbol in his name, indicating that any monuments with this symbol date from after the 17th or 18th year of his reign. As the first king in over a century to commission monuments for gods in both southern and northern Egypt, Ahmose inaugurated limestone quarries at Maasara for projects in Memphis and Thebes.
Ahmose’s contributions to the Amun cult at Karnak are notable. Had he lived longer, he might have initiated more extensive stone constructions there. What remains, however, are a doorway, several stelae, and possibly a boat shrine, all reflecting his devotion to Amun. This dedication was visible not just to the temple elite but also to ordinary Thebans during festivals.
Several limestone stelae from Ahmose’s reign, particularly from the last seven years, record significant events at Karnak. Two notable stelae from the Third Pylon include the Tempest Stele, where Ahmose claims to have restored tombs and pyramids in Thebes damaged by a storm attributed to Amun’s wrath. The Donation Stele records Ahmose buying the ‘second priesthood of Amun’ for his wife, Ahmose-Nefertari, further solidifying the royal family’s ties with the temple.
Another stele, dating to the 18th year of his reign, emphasizes the royal family’s power and lists cult items Ahmose dedicated to Karnak, such as gold and silver vessels, necklaces, musical instruments, and a wooden boat for processions. These donations suggest that the temple may have been lacking such precious items, possibly due to the aforementioned storm or financial strains during the 17th Dynasty.
The scarcity of precious metals in Upper Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period is noteworthy. Opulent gold funerary items reappear with Ahmose’s mother, Ahhotep, and Kamose, contrasting with the modest artifacts from the preceding period. Ahmose’s Karnak inscriptions may serve as an official narrative for Thebes’ impoverishment and his role in rejuvenating Karnak’s splendor. While not dismissing the historical events like the tempest or the priesthood purchase, these inscriptions might also be interpreted as serving historico-religious objectives.
