In the latter half of the 19th century, Russian military prestige had been severely damaged by its defeat in the Crimean War. Determined to restore its standing and secure a vital warm-water port, Russia set its sights on the Turkish Ottoman Empire once again. This led to the tenth and most significant conflict between the two empires, the Russo-Turkish War of 1877-1878, which would also be one of the bloodiest.
Rising Tensions and Historical Context
Russia and Turkey had a long history of conflict, with the 1877-1878 war being their tenth major clash. The first significant conflict between the two nations was the Russo-Turkish War of 1768-1774 during Catherine the Great’s reign, which concluded with Russian territorial expansion and the right to protect Christian subjects in the Ottoman Empire.
For decades before the 1877-1878 war, tensions simmered between the Muslim and Christian populations within the Ottoman Empire. Despite the Ottoman government’s attempts to promote equality, societal animosity and nationalistic sentiments fueled unrest. This tension was exacerbated by financial struggles and the resettlement of 600,000 Circassian Muslims expelled from the Russian Empire.
The Prelude to War
The immediate pretext for the Russo-Turkish War was the crisis in the Balkans from 1875 to 1876. Regions under Ottoman control, such as Romania, Bulgaria, Serbia, and Montenegro, began revolting against Turkish rule. Russia, under the guise of protecting its allies and aiding Christians against Muslim dominance, saw an opportunity to strike. The Ottoman response to these uprisings, particularly in Bulgaria, was brutal, resulting in the massacre of tens of thousands of Bulgarians, which drew international condemnation, especially from Russia.
On April 24, 1877, Russia declared war on the Ottoman Empire. Russian troops, numbering around 300,000, prepared to assault Turkish positions through Romania, which declared its independence shortly thereafter. Although outnumbered with 200,000 troops, the Turks had the advantage of fortified positions.
Both sides made strategic errors in the war’s early phases. The Turks underestimated Russian daring, assuming they would avoid risky operations. Meanwhile, the Russians initially deployed only 185,000 men across the Danube, insufficient to overcome Turkish defenses.
Major Battles and Turning Points
After crossing the Danube and capturing the city of Nikopol, the Russians faced their first major test at Pleven. Ottoman defenses under Osman Nuri Pasha thwarted a quick Russian victory, leading to a prolonged and costly siege. With Romanian support, Pleven eventually fell on December 10, 1877, but not before the Russians incurred 50,000 casualties. This heavy toll nearly crippled the Russian campaign, necessitating the mobilization of over 100,000 additional troops.
In the Caucasus, Russian forces led by Armenian commanders captured the town of Bayazid and the Ardahan region, eventually seizing the city of Kars after a challenging siege. These victories bolstered the Russian position, while the fall of Pleven allowed Serbian forces to renew their campaign against the Ottomans, capturing several cities.
The Defense of Shipka Pass
The fall of Pleven freed Russian troops for other operations, including the defense of Shipka Pass in Bulgaria. Four battles were fought here, with the most significant being the heroic stand by Russian and Bulgarian forces in August 1877. Despite running out of ammunition and resorting to throwing rocks, they repelled Ottoman attempts to retake the pass.
After securing Shipka Pass, Russian forces launched a surprise winter offensive, crossing a difficult part of the Stara Planina mountain range. They defeated a smaller Turkish army at the Battle of Tashkessen and captured Sofia. With no effective Turkish resistance remaining, the Russians were poised to march on Constantinople.
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The War’s Conclusion
Under pressure from Britain, the Russians eventually accepted a truce, and the war officially ended. The Treaty of San Stefano, signed on March 3, 1878, and later revised by the Treaty of Berlin, resulted in significant territorial and political changes. Bulgaria was established as a principality, technically a vassal state until its full independence in 1908. Romania, Serbia, and Montenegro also gained independence, further eroding Ottoman control in the Balkans.
In the Caucasus, Russia annexed several provinces, incorporating them into the Kars Oblast. However, the most chilling result of the war was the extensive ethnic cleansing carried out by both sides. Tens of thousands of Christians were massacred, with the most notable event being the massacre of civilians in Stara Zagora by forces under Suleiman Pasha. The death toll among Muslims was even higher, with an estimated 400,000 Ottoman Muslims killed by Russian forces and their allies.
The Aftermath
The Russo-Turkish War of 1877-1878 marked a pivotal moment in the decline of the Ottoman Empire and the rise of Russian influence in Eastern Europe and the Caucasus. It showcased the brutal realities of 19th-century warfare and the devastating impact on civilian populations caught in the crossfire of nationalist and imperial ambitions.
The war also highlighted the strategic importance of the Balkans and the Caucasus, regions that would continue to be hotspots of geopolitical tension well into the 20th century. For Russia, the war restored some of its lost prestige and expanded its territory, but it also set the stage for future conflicts as the Great Powers of Europe continued to vie for dominance in the region.
In conclusion, the last Russo-Turkish War was a conflict driven by strategic interests, nationalistic fervor, and religious tensions. Its legacy is a testament to the complex interplay of factors that have shaped the course of history in Eastern Europe and the Middle East. The human cost of the war, with its widespread atrocities and displacement, serves as a stark reminder of the destructive potential of imperial ambitions and the enduring impact of historical conflicts on the lives of ordinary people.
