The Qin Dynasty holds immense significance in Chinese history, despite its brief 14-year existence (221 – 206 BCE). This dynasty unified China administratively, standardized writing, weights, and measures, and constructed the Great Wall. It also marked the apex of Legalist thought, championed by figures like Li Si and Han Fei. However, the Qin’s harsh policies and massive construction projects led to widespread suffering, culminating in its rapid collapse. Below, we examine various aspects of the Qin Dynasty to better understand its importance and the historical lessons it offers.
1. Qin Shi Huang and Lü Buwei: The Story of the “Merchant Who Sold a King”
During the Warring States period, seven states constantly battled for supremacy. Qin emerged as a powerful military force thanks to reforms initiated by Shang Yang. However, Lü Buwei, popularly known as the “merchant who sold a king,” played a crucial role in paving the way for China’s unification.
Lü Buwei, an immensely wealthy merchant, allegedly traded horses or luxury goods. Recognizing the potential of Ying Yiren, a Qin prince held hostage in the Zhao state, Lü presented his pregnant concubine to Yiren. Subsequently, Yiren returned to Qin, became King Zhuangxiang of Qin, and appointed Lü as his chancellor. The concubine’s son (speculated to be Lü’s own) was Ying Zheng, the future Qin Shi Huang.
During Qin Shi Huang’s minority, Lü Buwei held regency. He was the first commoner (and a merchant, no less) in Chinese history to reach the pinnacle of power. While Lü enjoyed literature and the arts and advocated for peaceful policies, Qin Shi Huang displayed an increasingly authoritarian and ruthless nature. The king dismissed Lü, replacing him with Li Si, a prominent Legalist.
Before his dismissal, Lü Buwei commissioned his scholars to compile the Lüshi Chunqiu, a compendium of late Warring States thought and scholarship. It offers a glimpse into the diverse intellectual landscape of that era.
2. Qin Shi Huang: A Cruel but Great Emperor
Qin Shi Huang possessed a fierce temperament, believed in superstitions, and lacked the moral virtues espoused by Confucianism. Later Confucian historians severely criticized him. However, many Western scholars hail him as one of the great figures of ancient world history. In less than fifteen years of rule, he:
- Unified China in multiple aspects: militarily, administratively, in writing, weights and measures, etc.
- Expanded the empire’s borders, creating a vast territory.
- Established absolute monarchy, setting a precedent for later dynasties.
Qin Shi Huang considered his achievements comparable to the Three Sovereigns and Five Emperors. He adopted the title “Huangdi” (Emperor) and the epithet “Shi Huang” (First Emperor), intending for his successors to be called “Second Emperor,” “Third Emperor,” and so on, up to “Ten Thousandth Emperor.” He also established terms like “zhen” (I, the emperor) and “bi xia” (Your Majesty).
3. Administrative Organization
To quell any thoughts of rebellion among the former nobility, Qin Shi Huang forced the royal families of the six conquered states, along with their officials and families, to relocate to Xianyang, the Qin capital. Uprooted in this manner, they were unable to regain power. Their lands were confiscated and sold.
Under Shang Yang, Qin had divided its territory into counties, each directly reporting to the court. After unifying China, Qin Shi Huang established 36 commanderies (similar in scale to modern provinces), each subdivided into counties.
Each commandery had two officials:
- Governor (Junshou): Responsible for civil administration.
- Military Commander (Junwei): Responsible for military affairs and security.
Additionally, an Imperial Inspector (Jianshi) oversaw both officials on behalf of the emperor, preventing any single official from becoming too powerful.
This administrative reform replaced the decentralized feudal system with a centralized monarchy, concentrating power in the hands of the emperor and the central government.
4. Emphasis on Agriculture, Disdain for Commerce, and Increasing National Resources
Legalist ideology favored agriculture and military strength. A large peasant population ensured substantial production, while a strong military facilitated territorial expansion. Commerce and industry were viewed with disdain.
The Qin Dynasty sought to control merchants to monopolize trade profits. Wealthy merchants and small-scale ironworks owners were exiled to Shaanxi and Sichuan – then desolate regions – both to separate them from economic power and to force them into farming (a form of disguised forced labor). Records indicate over 200,000 families of wealthy and small merchants were exiled to Shu and Anyang.
The Qin Dynasty allowed farmers to own land (rather than it belonging to the king), with the right to buy and sell. This led to the emergence of a landlord class controlling large tracts of land, gradually gaining power, similar to European feudal lords.
Five to ten peasant households formed a mutual responsibility group (Lianjia), collectively responsible for tax collection and corvée labor. Any violation resulted in collective punishment. Young men were conscripted into the military until old age. Families with three men were forced to divide into two households for easier government control. Penal laws were extremely harsh.
5. Unification of Writing, Weights and Measures, and Thought
Before unification, Warring States China had numerous dialects. People from Yan couldn’t understand Chu, Zhao couldn’t understand Yue, making it difficult for Qin officials to govern different regions. Similarly, while the Zhou Dynasty used Large Seal script (Dazhuan), other states employed different writing styles.
To address this, Chancellor Li Si simplified Large Seal script and established a unified script called Small Seal script (Xiaozhuan). This script quickly spread throughout the empire, forming the basis for later Chinese writing systems.
Li Si also standardized weights, measures, and units, along with plowing standards and transportation methods. The court mandated uniform wheel axle widths (Tonggui) to ensure larger carts could travel on smaller roads.
Influenced by Mohism, Legalism emphasized “Shangtong” – forcing people to adhere to the ruler’s definitions of right and wrong. The Qin Dynasty suppressed any ideology opposing its policies, particularly Confucianism and private philosophical schools that taught morality and rejected war.
- In 213 BCE, at Li Si’s urging, Qin Shi Huang ordered the “Burning of Books”: Confucian classics, philosophical texts, and historical records in private possession were destroyed, leaving only copies in the imperial library.
- Histories of the six conquered states were also burned, except for books on medicine, agriculture, and divination.
- Possessing forbidden books was considered treason.
- Simultaneously, the “Burying of Scholars”: 460 Confucian scholars were buried alive in Xianyang, and others were exiled.
Consequently, many pre-Qin works were destroyed or altered. Some texts are considered forgeries, attributed to ancient figures to enhance their perceived value. This resulted in a significant loss to China’s ancient literary heritage.
6. Grand but Costly Construction Projects
Qin Shi Huang entrusted governance to Li Si, while he frequently toured the empire, overseeing the construction of roads, postal stations, and palaces.
- Roads radiating from Xianyang: Up to 7.5 meters wide (some sources claim 75 meters), lined with trees, and leveled across mountains and valleys to accommodate three lanes of chariot traffic.
- Numerous palaces: After conquering a state, he replicated its palace in Xianyang. Bronze from across the empire was collected to cast statues weighing tens of thousands of kilograms.
He also built the colossal Efang Palace along the Wei River as a summer retreat, requiring 700,000 convict laborers. Around 270 other palaces sprang up around the capital, housing treasures, musicians, and dancers from the six states for the emperor’s pleasure. When the Qin Dynasty declined, rebels burned these palaces for three months before the fires subsided.
The Great Wall
The most monumental project, still visible today, is the Great Wall. While states like Yan, Zhao, and Wei had previously built sections of walls to defend against northern barbarians, Qin connected, reinforced, and extended them, creating a defensive line thousands of kilometers long.
- 300,000 soldiers, countless convicts, officials who committed errors, and scholars who disobeyed the book burning order were conscripted to build the wall.
- Construction conditions were extremely harsh in the mountainous terrain and harsh climate.
- The legend of “Meng Jiangnü Weeping Down the Great Wall” reflects the suffering of those forced to build it.
The Great Wall temporarily deterred the Xiongnu nomadic tribes but couldn’t stop them indefinitely. Whenever China weakened, northern tribes breached the wall. Today, it serves primarily as a tourist attraction rather than a defensive structure.
7. Territorial Expansion
Upon unifying the six states, Qin Shi Huang immediately focused on conquering new territories.
- North: The Xiongnu posed a long-standing threat since the Shang and Zhou dynasties. Qin Shi Huang dispatched General Meng Tian to drive them further north, combining this with the Great Wall as a formidable defense.
- South: He sent General Tu Sui to conquer the Baiyue region (encompassing Zhejiang, Guangdong, Guangxi, and parts of northern Vietnam, then known as Au Lac).
Thus, Qin Shi Huang established one of the largest empires in the ancient world. Western merchants, trading for silk, called China Qin (the origin of “China”). In over a decade, Qin Shi Huang achieved internal unification, administrative reform, and the establishment of absolute imperial power.
However, the harsh policies and heavy forced labor engendered resentment among the populace, particularly the more civilized people of the conquered states. This growing resistance eventually triggered the Qin Dynasty’s downfall.
8. The Death of Qin Shi Huang and the Succession of the Second Emperor
During an inspection tour, Qin Shi Huang narrowly escaped assassination at Bolangsha by an assassin hired by Zhang Liang (Zifang). He survived, but in 210 BCE, during another tour, he fell ill and died en route. His body was secretly transported back to Xianyang, and the court only then announced his death.
Qin Shi Huang’s Mausoleum at Mount Li is as grand as Efang Palace. Legend claims it holds treasures, a map of rivers and the East China Sea made of mercury, and booby traps to deter grave robbers. Documents suggest 700,000 people participated in its construction.
Before his death, Qin Shi Huang’s will designated Crown Prince Fusu as his successor. However, Chancellor Li Si and the eunuch Zhao Gao forged the will, installing the second son, Huhai, as the Second Emperor. Equally tyrannical, he executed numerous princes and officials, including Li Si (along with his entire extended family).
Later, Zhao Gao forced the Second Emperor to commit suicide and installed Ziying (Fusu’s son) as emperor. Ziying soon executed Zhao Gao, but the Qin Dynasty was beyond saving. Peasant uprisings across the empire led to its demise after only 14 years.
9. The End of the Qin Dynasty: Xiang Yu, Liu Bang, and the Chu-Han Contention
Upon Qin Shi Huang’s death, rebellions erupted throughout the empire. Within months, six major uprisings emerged, notably:
- Chen Sheng in Qi (Anhui), the first peasant to rebel, but his uprising was quickly suppressed.
- Xiang Ji (Xiang Yu) in Wu (Jiangsu).
- Liu Bang in Pei (also in Jiangsu).
Xiang Yu descended from Chu generals, skilled in combat, and could “lift a 500-jin cauldron.” Liu Bang, a commoner, had served as a minor Qin official, enjoyed drinking, and was known for his greed and lust. However, Liu Bang possessed the ability to attract talented individuals during times of chaos. He gained the support of Xiao He (skilled in finance) and Zhang Liang (a brilliant strategist), enabling his small force to rapidly expand.
Both Xiang Yu and Liu Bang initially fought under the banner of “supporting Chu and destroying Qin,” recognizing King Huai of Chu as their nominal leader. They agreed that whoever reached Xianyang first would become king. Liu Bang reached Xianyang first, and Ziying, the last Qin emperor, surrendered, officially ending the Qin Dynasty. Liu Bang treated the populace leniently, forbidding his troops from looting.
Fearing Xiang Yu’s superior strength, Liu Bang allowed him to enter Xianyang. Xiang Yu executed Ziying, burned Efang Palace for three months, and plundered Qin Shi Huang’s tomb. He then installed King Huai of Chu as “Yi Di” (Righteous Emperor) before secretly assassinating him and proclaiming himself Hegemon-King of Western Chu. He divided the empire among his generals, granting Liu Bang the title of King of Han, assigning him to rule Ba, Shu, and Hanzhong.
In Ba and Shu, Liu Bang trained his army and expanded his territory. Meanwhile, Xiang Yu, relying on brute force, was prone to violence and ignored the advice of his strategist, Fan Zeng. The five-year power struggle culminated in Liu Bang besieging Xiang Yu at Gaixia. Knowing defeat was inevitable, Xiang Yu sang a melancholic song one night:
力拔山兮氣蓋世，
時不利兮騅不逝。
騅不逝兮可奈何，
虞兮虞兮奈若何。
(My strength plucks up mountains, my spirit covers the world.But my time is against me, my steed will not gallop!My steed will not gallop, what can I do?Yu, oh Yu, what can I do?)
His concubine, Yu Ji, replied:
大王意氣盡，
賤妾何聊生。
(My lord’s power is spent,What use is there for me to live?)
She committed suicide that night. The next morning, Xiang Yu broke through the siege with his remaining troops but was cornered at the Wu River. He fought fiercely, receiving over ten wounds before taking his own life, maintaining his heroic pride.
The Gaixia-Wujiang battle, both tragic and moving, was vividly described by Sima Qian in the Records of the Grand Historian, inspiring countless literary and artistic works.
Liu Bang’s victory marked the beginning of the Han Dynasty (202 BCE). Returning to his hometown of Pei, he held a banquet and improvised a song:
大風起兮雲飛揚，
威加海內兮歸故鄉，
安得猛士兮守四方。
(A great wind has arisen, the clouds fly high.My majesty spreads across the four seas, I return to my old home.Where can I find brave warriors to guard the four directions?)
The Qin-Chu rivalry ended. Liu Bang, as Han Gaozu, established the Han Dynasty, which lasted four centuries, becoming one of the most glorious dynasties in Chinese history.
10. Historical Significance and Lessons from the Qin Dynasty
Before the Qin, dynastic changes were typically led by nobles like Cheng Tang and King Wu. But at the end of the Qin, Chen Sheng’s peasant uprising (though short-lived) initiated a tradition of peasant rebellions. Liu Bang was the first commoner to ascend the throne.
Some Western scholars argue that no nation has seen as many peasant uprisings as China, mostly led by commoners with little formal education (Zhang Jiao, Huang Chao, Li Zicheng…). These leaders could connect with the masses, while educated elites (like Zhang Liang) typically served as advisors. Successful revolutions often resulted from the combination of peasant leaders and wise strategists.
The Qin Dynasty offers valuable lessons:
- The Importance of Unification: Qin established a strong centralized model, abolishing decentralized feudalism.
- The Power and Pitfalls of Legalism: Harsh legal systems can quickly restore order but also breed resentment, making them unsustainable.
- The Value of Public Opinion: Even the grandest reforms fail if they don’t align with the people’s desires and aspirations.
- Strategies against Foreign Invasion: The Great Wall temporarily deterred the Xiongnu, but when the nation weakened, even this magnificent structure couldn’t save it.
Despite its short duration, the Qin Dynasty profoundly impacted Chinese culture and history. It initiated China’s unification but also exemplifies rapid collapse due to popular discontent. It highlights the crucial balance between political and military power and the consent of the governed, a vital lesson for all dynasties.
In summary, the Qin Dynasty (221 – 206 BCE) laid the foundation for unified governance, leaving a lasting mark on Chinese culture and history. However, its autocratic and highly centralized but harsh policies led to its swift downfall, paving the way for peasant uprisings and the rise of the Han Dynasty. The stories of Qin Shi Huang and the rivalry between Liu Bang and Xiang Yu, passed down through generations, illustrate both tyranny and greatness, demonstrating the power of unity and the importance of public sentiment.
