The Roman military tribune (tribunus militum, literally “tribune of the soldiers”) held a crucial position within the Roman army, ranking between the legate (legion commander) and the centurion (company commander). More than just a military rank, the tribunate often served as a stepping stone for ambitious young men of equestrian rank aspiring to enter the Senate and climb the ladder of political power. This exploration delves into the intricacies of this important office, examining its origins, evolution, and distinct roles within the Republican and Imperial periods.
Early Rome: Tribunes and the Tribal Army
The very term “tribune” (tribunus) is rooted in the fundamental structure of early Roman society, deriving from the word tribus (“tribe”).[2] In the earliest days of Rome, when armies were mustered for specific campaigns rather than maintained as a standing force, each of the three original tribes – the Ramnes (or Ramnenses), Tities (or Titienses), and Luceres – provided a commander, a tribune, to lead their contingent. These tribal tribunes held command positions within the early Roman legion, a force initially numbering around 3,000 men. By the time of the Greek historian Polybius (d. 118 BC), the number of tribunes had increased to six, appointed by the consuls to serve within each legion.[4] However, the precise methods of selection and appointment varied throughout Roman history, reflecting the evolving political and military landscape.
The Republic: Military Tribunes and the Evolving Army
During the Republican period, the standard legionary structure included six military tribunes. These officers were drawn from the senatorial class, appointed by the Senate itself, highlighting the intertwined nature of political and military leadership in the Republic. Importantly, while a senatorial background was typically a prerequisite for becoming a consul or praetor, the position of tribune was accessible to any member of the ruling class, broadening the pool of potential candidates.
The six tribunes within a legion shared command responsibilities, with two holding active command at any given time, rotating amongst themselves. This system provided valuable experience for the younger officers and ensured a degree of continuity and shared knowledge within the legion’s command structure.
By 311 BC, the plebeians, after a long struggle for political equality, gained the right to elect sixteen military tribunes, representing four of the six tribunes assigned to each of the four legions that typically constituted the Roman army at that time. This represented a significant victory for the plebeians, granting them access to positions of military leadership that had previously been largely controlled by the patrician elite.
In addition to the standard military tribunes, the early Republic also saw the emergence of a unique and politically significant type of tribune: the tribuni militum consulari potestate (“military tribunes with consular power”). These individuals were sometimes elected in place of the usual two consuls to serve as the heads of the Roman state. While patricians held a monopoly on the consulship, both patricians and plebeians could be elected as consular tribunes, providing a potential pathway to high office for ambitious plebeians. The precise reasons for choosing consular tribunes over consuls remain somewhat obscure, though the Roman historian Livy often framed the decision in terms of the ongoing class struggles of the period, with patricians generally favoring the traditional consulship and plebeians supporting the election of consular tribunes. The practice of electing consular tribunes eventually ceased after 366 BC, replaced by the restored and reformed consulship.
After the Social War: Professionalization and Politicalization
The Social War (91-87 BC), a conflict between Rome and its Italian allies, and the subsequent civil wars that engulfed the late Republic, triggered significant changes in the Roman army’s organization and structure. These changes, further formalized by Emperor Claudius, led to the creation of a professionalized military system, with legions commanded by a legatus legionis (legionary legate).
While six tribunes were still assigned to each legion, their roles evolved. Instead of primarily military commanders, they became more akin to political officers, representing the interests of the Senate and the Roman state within the army. The second-in-command to the legate was the tribunus laticlavius (“broad-stripe tribune”), named after the distinctive broad stripe on his tunic and toga. This position was typically filled by a young man of senatorial rank, providing valuable experience in military administration and command under the tutelage of the legate. This position offered practical experience and insight into the workings of the military, essential knowledge for future political leaders. In the legate’s absence, the broad-stripe tribune assumed command of the legion. In some cases, such as legions stationed in Egypt, a broad-stripe tribune permanently commanded the legion. This was a direct consequence of an Augustan law prohibiting members of the Senatorial Order from entering Egypt without express permission, effectively barring senators of higher rank, including legates, from holding permanent commands in this strategically vital province.
The other five tribunes, known as tribuni angusticlavii (“thin-stripe tribunes”), were of lower rank, drawn from the equestrian class. They essentially served as “officer cadets,” gaining practical military experience without holding significant command authority. While they could participate in court martials, they lacked real power in battle. Most thin-stripe tribunes served under the legate or other senior officers, though some, like the future governor Agricola, were selected for staff positions under provincial governors, offering a different path to advancement. Tacitus, in his biography of Agricola, contrasts Agricola’s diligent and focused approach to his tribuneship with the behavior of his peers, many of whom viewed the position as an opportunity for leisure and self-indulgence rather than a serious military appointment.
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The Principate: From Centurion to Tribune
Under Augustus, the first Roman Emperor, the five equestrian tribunes were sometimes promoted from the ranks of centurions, experienced soldiers who had risen through the ranks of the legion. This pathway provided opportunities for talented and ambitious soldiers from non-aristocratic backgrounds to climb the social and political ladder. These tribunes could potentially advance further, earning commands in the auxiliary cavalry or even the prestigious Praetorian Guard, the emperor’s elite personal bodyguard.
Conclusion
The Roman military tribune, in its various forms and evolving roles, served as a crucial link between the military and political spheres of Roman society. For aspiring young men of the equestrian and senatorial classes, the tribunate offered valuable military experience, an essential qualification for political leadership. As the Roman army evolved, the tribunate adapted, its focus shifting from direct command to political oversight and administration. The legacy of the military tribune as a pathway to power and prestige, a stepping stone to higher office and influence within the Roman state, remains a testament to the interconnected nature of military and political life in ancient Rome.
