The term “Tribune” (Latin: Tribunus) denoted various elected officials in ancient Rome, each wielding distinct powers and responsibilities. Two of the most crucial were the tribunes of the plebs and the military tribunes. The tribunes of the plebs served as powerful protectors of the plebeian class, acting as a check on the authority of the Senate and other magistrates. The military tribunes, on the other hand, held command positions within the Roman army, serving under higher-ranking officers. This exploration delves into the distinct roles and historical evolution of these two important tribuneships, alongside other less prominent positions that also bore the title.
Tribal Tribunes: Ancient Roots
The very word “tribune” is derived from the structure of the early Roman tribes. The three original tribes, known as the Ramnes (or Ramnenses), Tities (or Titienses), and Luceres, each had a tribune as their leader. These tribal tribunes represented their respective tribes in civil, religious, and military matters. Later, when King Servius Tullius reorganized Roman society into new tribes based on geographic location and property ownership, each of these Servian tribes also had its own tribune. This structure established the tribune as a fundamental representative of a distinct segment of the Roman population.
Tribune of the Celeres: The King’s Right Hand
During the Roman Kingdom, the tribunus celerum (tribune of the celeres, or tribune of the knights) commanded the king’s personal bodyguard, known as the celeres. This was a position of considerable power and prestige, second only to the king himself. The tribune of the celeres had the authority to propose laws (lex tribunicia) and presided over the comitia curiata, one of the oldest Roman assemblies. In the absence of the king, the tribune of the celeres commanded the cavalry in battle. Theoretically, with the support of the comitia curiata, this tribune could even revoke the king’s imperium (authority to command), demonstrating the significant checks and balances inherent in this role.
A prominent example of the tribune of the celeres is Lucius Junius Brutus, who served under the last king of Rome, Tarquinius Superbus. Brutus, the king’s nephew, played a key role in the overthrow of the monarchy. After the transition to the Republic, the powers of the tribunus celerum were divided. The military command functions were transferred to the Magister Militum (Master of the Infantry), later known as the Praetor Maximus or dictator, and his deputy, the magister equitum (Master of the Horse). This division of powers reflected the Republican principle of distributing authority among multiple offices to prevent the concentration of power in a single individual.
Tribunes of the Plebs: Champions of the People
The tribuni plebis (tribunes of the plebs, tribunes of the people, or plebeian tribunes) were established in 494 BC, following the first secession of the plebs. This marked a pivotal moment in the struggle between the patrician aristocracy and the plebeian commoners. Faced with the oppressive power of the patrician-dominated Senate and magistrates, the plebeians withdrew from Rome, effectively paralyzing the city’s functions. To resolve the crisis, the patricians agreed to create the office of tribune of the plebs, specifically designed to protect the interests of the plebeians.
Initially, there were either two or five tribunes of the plebs. If the former, the college expanded to five in 470 BC. In either case, the number of tribunes was fixed at ten by 457 BC and remained so throughout the rest of the Republic. These tribunes were assisted by two aediles plebis (plebeian aediles), who shared their responsibility for protecting plebeian rights.
Powers and Responsibilities
The tribunes of the plebs held several crucial powers:
- Convening the Plebeian Assembly: They could convene the concilium plebis (plebeian assembly) and propose legislation to be voted upon. Initially, the decisions of this assembly (plebiscita) applied only to plebeians. However, following the Lex Hortensia of 287 BC, plebiscita gained the force of law for all Roman citizens, significantly enhancing the tribunes’ political power.
- Veto Power (ius intercessionis): The most significant power of the tribunes was their ius intercessionis (right of intercession or veto). This allowed a tribune to intervene on behalf of any Roman citizen and block the actions of any magistrate, even a consul, or the Senate itself. This veto power served as a powerful check on the authority of other officials and protected plebeians from unjust or discriminatory treatment. Only a dictator was immune to the tribunes’ veto.
- Sacrosanctity: The tribunes’ persons were considered sacrosanct, meaning they were inviolable. Any attack or interference with a tribune was considered a grave offense punishable by death. This sacrosanctity, derived from the oath sworn by the plebeians to protect their tribunes, was essential for the tribunes’ ability to effectively carry out their duties without fear of reprisal.
Limitations
Despite their significant powers, the tribunes also faced certain limitations:
- Geographic Restriction: The tribunes’ powers were primarily limited to the city of Rome and a one-mile radius around it. This meant they had little direct influence over the actions of provincial governors or military commanders operating outside this area.
- No Formal Magisterial Status: Technically, the tribunes of the plebs were not considered magistrates in the traditional sense. This was because they were elected solely by the plebeians, not by the entire Roman populace.
Decline under the Empire
The powers of the tribunes were significantly curtailed by Sulla’s reforms in 81 BC. While some of these powers were restored in later years, the prestige and authority of the tribuneship never fully recovered. In 48 BC, Julius Caesar, as dictator, granted himself tribunicia potestas (tribunician power), the powers of a tribune without actually holding the office. This move allowed him to effectively bypass the tribunes’ veto power. Augustus, the first Roman Emperor, also received tribunicia potestas in 23 BC, setting a precedent followed by subsequent emperors. Under the Empire, while plebeian tribunes continued to be elected, they became increasingly subservient to the emperor’s will, their independence and authority greatly diminished. The office essentially transformed into a stepping stone for aspiring senators.
Military Tribunes: Officers of the Legions
The tribuni militum (military tribunes or tribunes of the soldiers) were elected annually alongside other Roman magistrates. Their number varied throughout history, eventually reaching twenty-four. These were typically younger men aiming for senatorial careers. Each military tribune commanded a portion of the Roman army, serving under the consuls, praetors, and other higher-ranking commanders.
Within the legions, several middle-ranking officers also held the title of tribune:
- Tribunus Laticlavius: A senatorial officer, second in command of a legion, identifiable by a broad stripe (laticlavus) on their tunic.
- Tribunus Angusticlavius: An equestrian officer, with five assigned to each legion, identified by a narrow stripe (angusticlavius).
- Tribunus Rufulus: An officer chosen by the legion’s commander.
- Tribunus Vacans: An unassigned officer on the general’s staff in the Late Roman Army.
- Tribunus Cohortis: Commander of a cohort, a unit within a legion usually comprising six centuries.
- Tribunus Cohortis Urbanae: Commander of an urban cohort, a military police unit stationed in Rome.
- Tribunus Sexmestris: A tribune serving a six-month term.
Consular Tribunes
From 444 to 367 BC, during periods of conflict between patricians and plebeians, tribuni militum consulare potestate (military tribunes with consular power) were sometimes elected in place of consuls. This arrangement aimed to provide a compromise solution, allowing plebeians a potential pathway to higher office while preventing them from directly holding the consulship. However, in practice, during this period, all consular tribunes elected were patricians.
Tribunes of the Treasury
The Tribuni Aerarii (Tribunes of the Treasury) initially served as tax collectors. However, this role diminished over time, and by the late Republic, the title denoted a class of citizens slightly below the equites (knights) in wealth. They formed one-third of the juries following the judicial reforms of 70 BC.
More Affairs
Later Uses of the Title
The title of “tribune” continued to be used in various contexts even after the fall of the Roman Empire, reflecting its historical significance. In post-Roman Britain, references to individuals with “tribunician power” suggest the persistence of Roman administrative structures even after the official withdrawal of Roman legions. The Republic of Venice adopted a dual tribunal system inspired by the Roman model, with two tribunes elected annually to oversee the Doge and prevent the abuse of power. During the French Revolution, a “Tribunat” was established, though it held little real political power.
Conclusion
The title of tribune, encompassing a range of offices and responsibilities, played a vital role in shaping the political and military landscape of ancient Rome. From the tribal tribunes representing the basic building blocks of Roman society to the powerful tribunes of the plebs who championed the rights of the commoners and acted as a check on the authority of the ruling class, the concept of the tribune embodies the dynamic tension between different segments of Roman society. The military tribunes, as officers of the legions, ensured the effectiveness and discipline of Rome’s formidable military machine. Though the various tribuneships evolved and eventually faded into history, their legacy continues to resonate, offering valuable insights into the complexities of Roman governance, the balance of power within the Republic, and the evolution of political and military institutions.
