The ancient world was a tapestry woven with threads of trade, diplomacy, and cultural exchange. Among the most fascinating strands of this intricate web was the relationship between the Roman Empire and the Indian subcontinent, particularly the Saka and Satavahana kingdoms, during the first few centuries AD. This period saw Roman merchants braving treacherous seas to reach the bustling port of Barygaza, seeking precious gemstones, exotic spices, and luxurious textiles. This post will delve into the world of the Sakas, Satavahans and the Roman trade.
The Perilous Journey to Barygaza
Roman ships embarked on a daunting journey to reach the Indian subcontinent. Leaving the Indus region, they sailed south for hundreds of miles to Barygaza, a major port in Gujarat. This voyage was fraught with peril for the deep-hulled Roman vessels, which risked running aground on hidden underwater hazards and being torn apart by powerful currents.
The Periplus Maris Erythraei, a crucial Greco-Roman navigational guide, vividly describes the dangers. East of the Indus lay a bay called Eirinon, notorious for its “succession of shallow eddies reaching out a long way from land.” Ships frequently ran aground here, far from sight of the shore.
Further south, the Gulf of Barake (modern Kutch) presented an even greater threat. The Periplus warns that ships blundering into this basin were “destroyed, for the waves are very big and oppressive. The sea is choppy and turbid with eddies and violent whirlpools.” Crews caught in these currents would desperately throw down anchors, but the sheer drops and sharp rocky outcrops of the coast often severed their anchor lines.
Archaeological evidence confirms these dangers. Fragments of Roman amphorae and the remains of lead anchors have been discovered on the seabed near Bet Dwarka Island. The Periplus also mentions the sighting of “sea-snakes, huge and black” as an indication of approaching currents. Roman ships would then steer out to sea, only rejoining the coast when small, golden-yellow eels were seen, signaling their arrival at the Cambay Gulf, which led to Barygaza.
The Saka Rulers of Barygaza: Diplomacy and Intrigue
Barygaza was under the dominion of the Saka kings, a dynasty originating from the Asian steppe. These Indo-Scythian rulers had established contact with the Roman Empire as early as 26 BC, when Emperor Augustus received their envoys in Spain. Suetonius notes that these ambassadors were “from nations previously known to us only through hearsay and they petitioned for the friendship of Augustus and the Roman people.”
The Sakas, facing threats from the Parthians, likely sought a military alliance with Rome, hoping for support in a potential conflict. Orosius, a Roman historian, suggests a link between this embassy and Augustus’s ambitions for eastern conquests, claiming the ambassadors came to “praise the Emperor with the glory of Alexander the Great.”
This embassy was probably dispatched by Azes, the last Saka king to rule in Indo-Scythia. Azes, influenced by Greek culture, issued currency displaying the goddess Athena and used Greek titles, styling himself “The Great King of Kings.” He was likely also responsible for a second embassy that reached the Roman Empire in 22 BC. This time, the ambassadors traveled overland from the Persian Gulf to Roman Syria, ultimately meeting Augustus on the Greek island of Samos.
Strabo reports that only three of the ambassadors survived the arduous journey. They carried a letter from Azes, written in Greek, expressing his desire for an alliance with Augustus. Azes, facing the impending loss of his Indus possessions to the Parthians, proposed a military pact, offering Augustus passage through his territory and cooperation “in anything that was honourable.” Dio records that a “treaty of friendship” was agreed upon, but by this point, Augustus had shifted his focus towards peace with the Parthians, abandoning plans for further eastern conquests.
The Exotic Gifts and the Enigmatic Zarmarus
The Saka embassies to Augustus were marked by a sense of novelty and wonder for the Romans. Nicolaus describes the “gifts brought to Caesar Augustus” presented by “eight naked servants besprinkled with sweet-smelling odours and clad only in loin-cloths.” Among the gifts were an armless Indian youth, proclaimed a “living Hermes,” who could use his feet as hands, and a collection of exotic creatures, including a pheasant, a large tortoise, snakes, and a giant python. Dio mentions that the envoys also brought tigers, “the first time the Romans and probably the Greeks had seen these animals.”
Accompanying the ambassadors was a Buddhist or Jain missionary from Barygaza, known to the Romans as “Zarmarus” or “Zarmano-chegas.” This holy man, possibly seeking patronage from Augustus, remained with the Emperor and traveled to Athens in 21 BC.
In Athens, Zarmarus, after being initiated into the Eleusinian Mysteries, decided to demonstrate his faith by immolating himself on a funeral pyre. Strabo describes the scene, with Zarmarus “anointed his naked body with fragrances and wearing only a loin-cloth, leaped upon the lighted pyre with a laugh.” Augustus had his cremated remains placed in a tomb, commemorating the event with the inscription, “Here lies Zarmanochegas, an Indian from Barygaza, who immolated himself in accordance with his ancestral customs.” This act, reminiscent of the self-immolation of Calanus, an Indian sage who served Alexander the Great, became a noted attraction in Athens.
The Shifting Sands of Power and Trade
Augustus took pride in establishing diplomatic relations with distant kingdoms, as evidenced by his memorial inscription: “to me were sent embassies of kings from India, who had never been seen in the camp of any Roman general.” However, despite initial interest, Rome did not intervene militarily in India. By 10 BC, the Parthians had conquered most of the Indus Region, reducing the Saka Kingdom to Gujarat, with Barygaza as its primary port.
During the first century AD, Gujarat was ruled by the Saka King Nahapana, known to Roman traders as “Manbanos.” The Periplus describes the region as “very fertile,” producing grain, rice, sesame oil, ghee, cotton, and Indian cloths. Roman interest in the area extended to agriculture, with Pliny noting the successful transplantation of a new variety of millet from India to Italy.
The Intricacies of Trade at Barygaza
Barygaza, despite its lack of natural harbors, thrived as a major hub for Indian Ocean commerce. The Periplus notes that it received ships from Arabia, East Africa, and the Persian Gulf. The text mentions Barygaza more frequently than any other trade center, highlighting its significance.
The approach to the port, however, remained perilous. The Periplus details the strong currents, shoals, and reefs in the Cambay Gulf, as well as the difficulty in locating the mouth of the Narmada River. To mitigate these dangers, King Nahapana arranged for local rowboats to guide Roman ships past the sandbanks and tow them upstream to docking basins in the river. This service, likely paid for by the Roman captains, contributed to the royal treasury.
The Lure of Eastern Gemstones
One of the primary attractions for Roman merchants in northern India was the wide array of colorful gemstones produced at inland mines. India, in contrast to the limited variety of gems available in the Roman Empire, offered a dazzling spectrum of colors and properties. Pliny identifies “India as the most prolific provider” of these prized items, dedicating a significant portion of his Natural History to their origin and characteristics.
Eastern gemstones became integral to Roman fashion. Affluent women adorned themselves with these jewels in rings, necklaces, earrings, hair-clasps, and tiaras. Writers like Propertius, Lucian, and Tertullian provide vivid descriptions of these elaborate displays of wealth. Men also indulged in gemstone-studded rings, often engraved with images of classical gods and heroes.
Crimson-colored sardonyx gemstones, sourced from cities in northwest India, held a special place in Roman fashion. Their unique pink and cream-colored bands made them ideal for carving cameos and intaglios. These stones were used not only for decoration but also for practical purposes, such as signet-rings used to validate documents.
The demand for eastern gemstones fueled a thriving market in Rome, with wealthy individuals competing to acquire the most exquisite and rare specimens. Some even resorted to hiring expensive jewelry to project an image of wealth and status, particularly in legal and financial settings.
Barygaza: A Hub of Regional and International Commerce
Barygaza served as a crucial link between the inland city of Minnagara, the Saka capital in Gujarat, and the wider world. The Periplus describes how Minnagara “sent great quantities of cloth to Barygaza.” The Sakas likely controlled the collection and sale of precious stones, ensuring that foreign merchants primarily purchased them from government agents, with profits flowing into the royal treasury.
Ujjain, another important city under Saka control, served as a collection point for valuable goods, including gemstones. These items were transported to Barygaza for sale to visiting maritime traders. However, by AD 50, the Satavahana Kingdom declared war on the Sakas, expelling them from Ujjain and disrupting the state-run trade networks.
At Barygaza, Roman ships acquired a variety of goods, including cotton, spices (costus, bdellium, lyceum, and Himalayan nard), Chinese silk, ivory, and precious stones. Some ships also took on board rice, ghee, and female slaves. The ivory trade included both whole tusks and locally worked artifacts, such as the ivory statuette found in Pompeii, possibly depicting the Hindu goddess Lakshmi.
Roman Exports and the Flow of Precious Metals
Roman exports to Barygaza included Italian wine, Laodicean wine, Arabian wine, raw glass, copper, tin, lead, clothing, fabrics, coral, peridot gemstones, storax, perfumes, and various minerals used in cosmetics and medicine.
The Arthasastra, an ancient Indian treatise on statecraft, suggests that Indian kingdoms fixed prices for certain goods. The Sakas likely followed this practice, offering favorable exchange rates to traders who used the local currency. This encouraged Roman merchants to exchange imperial money for Indian coins, leading to a significant outflow of precious metals from the Roman economy.
The Sakas used Roman aurei for high-value payments in India, as evidenced by a Prakrit inscription recording a gift to a Hindu shrine. The inscription indicates that Indian society placed a premium value on silver, with a gold-to-silver ratio more favorable to silver than in the Roman Empire. The Sakas exploited this difference, melting down Roman denarii to produce higher-grade Saka coins, further contributing to the drain of silver from the Roman economy.
The Satavahana Kingdom and the Shifting Trade Routes
Roman merchants sailing south from Gujarat entered the Satavahana Kingdom, which controlled much of the Deccan Plateau and had a presence on the Konkan Coast. The Periplus describes the challenging terrain inland, with “many barren areas, great mountains and all kinds of wild animals.”
Kalliena, on the Ulhas River, served as the Satavahana Kingdom’s primary emporion (state-nominated trade center). However, in AD 50, the Saka King Nahapana seized Kalliena, disrupting trade and leading to attacks on foreign shipping. Roman ships that strayed into the conflict were often escorted back to Barygaza by Saka warships.
During the AD 60s, the Satavahanas reclaimed Kalliena, coinciding with Emperor Vespasian’s construction of the Colosseum in Rome. Kalliena became a major supplier of exotic animals for the arena displays. However, due to continued vulnerability to Saka raids, the Satavahanas shifted their main trade center to Semylla, further south.
The Integration of Roman Merchants into Indian Society
Roman merchants established long-term communities in the Satavahana ports and nearby towns. Some converted to Indian religions, particularly Buddhism, and adopted indigenous names. Inscriptions from ancient Buddhist monasteries in the Western Deccan record donations made by these Yavanas (Romans), who integrated themselves into their new religious communities.
These inscriptions reveal the names and origins of some of these Roman converts, such as Indragnidatta, Romanakas, Cita, and Irla. They contributed to the construction of monasteries, providing funds for relic chambers, cisterns, halls, and decorative pillars.
Some Romans may have also been received into Brahmin communities, adopting Hindu customs. Roman influence is evident in Hindu astronomy, with works like the Pancasiddhantika referencing Roman doctrines on astronomy. Varahamihira, a sixth-century Hindu astronomer, acknowledged the respect given to “Yavanas who have studied the science” as Rishis (Hindu Seers).
The integration of Roman merchants into Indian society highlights the cultural exchange that accompanied trade. Some of these early converts to Buddhism may have even carried their new beliefs back to the Roman Empire, potentially influencing the styles and philosophies of certain individuals.
The story of Indo-Roman trade during the era of the Saka and Satavahana kingdoms is a testament to the interconnectedness of the ancient world. It reveals the challenges, risks, and rewards of long-distance commerce, the complexities of diplomatic relations, and the fascinating ways in which cultures interacted and influenced one another. The treacherous journey to Barygaza, the exotic goods exchanged, the integration of Roman merchants into Indian society, and the enduring legacy of this exchange continue to captivate and inform our understanding of the ancient world.
