Prior to the dominance of the Olympian gods in Greek mythology, the Titans were in power. Zeus defeated the Titans and cast them into Tartarus.
When we think of Greek deities, names such as Zeus, Poseidon, and Hades come to mind—these are the formidable Olympian gods who governed various elements of existence and the universe. Zeus ruled the sky and heavens, Poseidon presided over the seas and all bodies of water, while Hades was in charge of the Underworld and the souls of the deceased. However, before the Olympians ascended to power, there existed another generation of gods known as the Titans. Although the Titans were often viewed as harsh deities, their reign is still remembered as a Golden Age, which came to an end with the emergence of the Olympians.
Titans: Offspring of Earth and Sky
Prior to the Olympians, who were named for their residence on Mount Olympus, there existed the Titans, the descendants of the primordial deities Gaia (the Earth) and Ouranos (the Sky). It was Ouranos who bestowed the name “Titans” upon his children after they violently overthrew him, cursing them and forewarning them of the inevitable punishment that awaited them.
In Hesiod’s Theogony, the poet derives the title “Titans” from the Greek words τιταίνω, which means to stretch or strain, and τίσις, which translates to vengeance or retribution. Although contemporary scholars regard this as a folk etymology, Hesiod’s depiction of these early gods frames them in this manner and establishes the groundwork for the ensuing narrative.
It is now widely believed that the tale of the Titans has its origins in the Near East, specifically in modern-day Turkey, as it shares significant similarities with the earlier Hurro-Hittite myth of Kumarbi, particularly the succession stories from Ouranos to Kronos (often spelled Cronus in Latin), and then from Kronos to Zeus.
Ancient Titans
Hesiod’s Theogony is the earliest source that mentions the Titans, referring to them as specific offspring of Ouranos and Gaia. Oceanus is identified as the god of the all-encompassing river Oceanus, which serves as the source of all fresh water. The term applies to both the deity and the location, similar to how Hades denotes both the god and the underworld. Koios represents intelligence and the celestial axis; Krios is associated with constellations; Iapetus embodies mortality; Hyperion is linked to light and the cycles of day and night; Kronos, the youngest son, symbolizes time; Theia is the goddess of light and vision; Rhea represents female fertility; Themis stands for law, order, and prophecy; Mnemosyne is the goddess of memory and language; Tethys is associated with nursing and fresh water; and Phoebe embodies intellect and prophecy.
Although later writers expand on this list, Ouranos referred to his children as Titans in a derogatory manner rather than as a generational label. This is evidenced by the fact that Gaia and Ouranos’ other offspring, such as the Cyclopes, the Hundred-Handers, the Furies, and even Aphrodite—if Hesiod’s account of her origin is accepted—are not classified as Titans. Once they gained power, the Titans organized the world according to their preferences, marrying among themselves and producing additional divine offspring.
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Junior Titans
Later Greek writers expanded the list of Titans by including the direct descendants of the original twelve mentioned in Hesiod’s account, thereby altering the definition of the term to encompass the generation of gods that came before the Olympians.
Among the most well-known younger Titans are the sons of Iapetus and Klymene. Prometheus is recognized as the deity who created humanity and stole fire from Zeus for their benefit. For this act, he faced punishment by being bound atop the Caucasus Mountains, where an eagle was sent to consume his liver daily. His brother Epimetheus married Pandora, while his daughter Pyrrha played a crucial role in preserving humanity during a great flood. The third brother, Atlas, was tasked with holding up the sky.
Other significant figures include the offspring of Hyperion and Theia: Helios, Selene, and Eos. Helios was the all-seeing sun god and was involved in the tale of Aphrodite’s affair with Ares. Selene, the moon goddess, represented the lunar cycle and was said to have nurtured the Nemean Lion, which Herakles defeated as part of his labors. She also sent a gadfly that led to the demise of Ampelos, a lover of Dionysus, who was thrown off a bull and trampled to death. Eos, the dawn goddess, was cursed by Aphrodite with an unending desire for Ares. Eos once fell in love with Orion and took him to Delos, Apollo’s sacred island, where he was ultimately killed by Artemis, either out of jealousy or due to a challenge he posed to her in a discus contest.
The Castration of Ouranos
Gaia bore six additional children with Ouranos. These included the Cyclopes, named for their single round eye located in the middle of their foreheads, and the Hecatoncheires, also known as the Hundredhanders, which comprised Kottos, Gyges, and Briareus. Each of them possessed 100 arms and 50 heads atop their shoulders. Ouranos was so repulsed by these offspring that he concealed them deep within Gaia immediately after their birth, causing her immense suffering. In response, she fashioned a sickle made of adamantine and pleaded with her other children to assist her in confronting their father. Only Kronos accepted the challenge; the others were paralyzed with fear.
Gaia concealed Kronos, provided him with the sickle, and informed him of her strategy. He then lay in wait. When Ouranos next approached Gaia, Kronos leaped from his hiding spot and severed his father’s genitals with the sickle before casting them into the sea. The blood that spilled onto the Earth gave rise to the Furies, deities who punish familial violence, and the Giants, or Gigantes, meaning Earthborn. The severed genitals created white foam in the sea, which eventually washed up on the shores of Cyprus, leading to the birth of Aphrodite.
While Hesiod claimed that Kronos acted alone, Apollodorus stated that all of Ouranos’s children, except Oceanus, participated in the attack. Regardless of the differing accounts, Ouranos held all his children responsible and labeled them Titans.
Gaining Authority Over Heaven
In most interpretations of the Titan myth, Kronos seizes power immediately after castrating his father. However, some sources mention a different divine pair that ruled before him: Ophion and Eurynome. This narrative likely originates from the Orphic tradition, a mystery religion focused on the resurrection of Dionysus and the hymns of Orpheus.
In Apollonios of Rhodes’ Argonautica, it is recounted that Orpheus sang about Ophion and Eurynome, who were believed to be the original rulers of the world. Their reign was usurped by Kronos and Rhea, leading to their banishment into the waters of Oceanus. At this point, Zeus had already been born but was still a young child hiding in the Dictean Cave, indicating that Kronos did not assume control immediately following his father’s castration. The throne that Zeus eventually occupies is even referred to as Ophion’s throne.
There is some contention regarding whether the name Ophion refers to a different deity. He has been associated with either Ouranos or Oceanus, while Eurynome has been linked to either Gaia or Tethys. If they are identified with Ouranos and Gaia, the story aligns with Hesiod’s account, except for their exile to Oceanus. Since theogonies and cosmogonies aim to clarify the structure of the universe, it seems illogical to have the embodiments of earth and sky banished, as this would imply that earth and sky themselves were excluded from the existing order. Conversely, if Ophion and Eurynome are equated with Oceanus and Tethys, it could suggest that they were the initial rulers of the cosmos rather than Ouranos and Gaia, or that they governed right after Ouranos was castrated.
Additionally, parallels have been drawn between Ophion and Eurynome and Typhoeus and Echidna, two monstrous figures known for producing a lineage of mythical monsters such as the Hydra, Sphinx, Chimera, and Cerberus. In Pherecydes’ Theogony, Chronos, an eternal god of time distinct from Kronos, waged war against Ophion and his offspring with Eurynome. The name Ophion implies a serpent-like appearance, while Eurynome, if she is indeed the daughter of Oceanus worshipped in Phigalia, is depicted as a mermaid. Thus, it is fitting that their progeny would share similar forms.
Origin of the Olympians
Kronos had six offspring with his sister Rhea: Hestia, Demeter, Hera, Hades, Poseidon, and Zeus. He was troubled by a prophecy from his parents that one of his sons would eventually overthrow him. To prevent this from happening, Kronos swallowed each child as soon as they were born. This caused Rhea immense sorrow, and when she was about to give birth to Zeus, she sought the help of her parents, Gaia and Ouranos, to create a plan to save her children and take revenge on Kronos. Rhea was taken to Crete to secretly give birth, and instead of handing over the newborn Zeus, she gave Kronos a stone wrapped in swaddling clothes, which he swallowed without hesitation. Once Zeus reached adulthood, he, along with Rhea and Gaia, persuaded Kronos to vomit up his siblings.
Titanomachy
Alongside his siblings, Zeus engaged in a prolonged conflict lasting ten years against Kronos and the Titans, an event referred to as the Titanomachy. The most widely accepted and detailed account of this battle is found in Hesiod’s Theogony, where Zeus and his brothers and sisters revolted against Kronos due to his treatment of their father, Ouranos, and their uncles, the Cyclopes and Hundredhanders.
Initially, Zeus liberated his uncles, the Cyclopes and Hundredhanders, enlisting them to support him. The Hundredhanders launched enormous boulders at the Titan forces, causing a tumultuous battle that reverberated from the heights of Olympus to the depths of Tartarus. Zeus then entered the fight, wielding the thunderbolt bestowed upon him by the Cyclopes. Together, they defeated the Titans, banishing them to Tartarus and binding them there. Zeus assigned the Hundredhanders to guard the imprisoned Titans and had Poseidon construct a bronze gate to secure them.
However, the divine conflicts were not over. Gaia subsequently gave birth to Typhoeus, a terrifying serpent-like creature with numerous voices and the power to emit flames from his eyes. It was commonly believed that he was created to seek revenge for the Titans’ treatment at the hands of the Olympians, although there is no textual evidence to confirm this. Zeus confronted Typhoeus and, after a fierce battle, struck him down with his thunderbolt. With no further rivals for supremacy, Zeus ascended to become the ruler of both gods and humans.
