The Tribune of the Plebs (Latin: tribunus plebis), also known as the Tribune of the People or Plebeian Tribune, holds a unique and significant place in the history of the Roman Republic. Established as the first office accessible to plebeians, it served as the primary check on the power of the Senate and the patrician magistrates. While lacking the formal authority of elected magistrates, the Tribunes wielded considerable influence through their ability to convene the Plebeian Assembly, propose legislation, and most importantly, veto the actions of other officials, protecting the interests of the plebeian class. This exploration delves into the origins, powers, limitations, and eventual decline of this vital institution.
Establishment of the Tribunate
Just fifteen years after the expulsion of the kings and the founding of the Roman Republic, a deep-seated tension between the patrician elite and the plebeian commoners erupted. The plebeians, burdened by crippling debt and facing discriminatory treatment at the hands of the patrician magistrates, were on the brink of revolt. In 494 BC, tensions reached a boiling point. Clashes between the two orders threatened to tear the nascent Republic apart, and there was even talk of assassinating the consuls.
Faced with this crisis, the plebeians, led by Lucius Sicinius Vellutus (or Bellutus, depending on the source), took a drastic step. Instead of resorting to violence, they enacted a strategic withdrawal, seceding en masse to the Mons Sacer (Sacred Mount), a hill outside Rome’s boundaries. This act, known as the first secession of the plebs, effectively paralyzed the city, demonstrating the essential role played by the plebeians in Rome’s daily functioning.
The Senate, recognizing the gravity of the situation, dispatched Agrippa Menenius Lanatus, a highly respected former consul with strong ties to the plebeians, to negotiate their return. Menenius, employing a clever analogy, recounted the fable of the belly and the limbs. He likened the patricians to the belly and the plebeians to the limbs, arguing that just as the body cannot survive without both, the city could not function without the cooperation of both orders. Persuaded by Menenius’s words and promises of negotiation, the plebeians agreed to return to Rome.
The key demand of the plebeians was the establishment of a dedicated office to represent their interests and protect them from the arbitrary power of the patrician magistrates. The Senate, recognizing the necessity of compromise, conceded, and the office of Tribune of the Plebs was born. These tribunes were granted sacrosanctity, meaning that any physical harm or interference with their official duties was considered a sacrilege punishable by death. This protection was crucial, ensuring the tribunes could perform their duties without fear of reprisal from the patricians.
The first Tribunes of the Plebs, Lucius Albinius Paterculus and Gaius Licinius, were appointed in 493 BC. Shortly thereafter, the tribunes themselves appointed Sicinius and two others as their colleagues. Initially, sources vary on the number of tribunes – some indicate two, others five. If there were indeed only two initially, the college of tribunes expanded to five in 470 BC. Regardless of the initial number, the number of tribunes was fixed at ten in 457 BC and remained so for the rest of the Republic. They were further assisted by two aediles plebis (plebeian aediles), who shared their responsibilities in protecting the rights and interests of the plebeian class. Importantly, only plebeians were eligible to hold these offices, ensuring the tribunes remained true representatives of the people they served. There were, however, at least two known exceptions to this rule.
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Powers of the Tribunes
While often referred to as “plebeian magistrates,” the Tribunes of the Plebs, along with the plebeian aediles, did not technically hold the formal status of magistrates. This was because they were elected solely by the Plebeian Assembly (concilium plebis), rather than by the entire Roman populace, as was the case with magistrates. However, in practice, they functioned much like magistrates, wielding considerable power and influence within the Roman state.
The Tribunes’ powers were multifaceted:
- Convening and Presiding over the Plebeian Assembly: The tribunes could summon the concilium plebis and preside over its meetings. This assembly was initially empowered to pass resolutions (plebiscita) that applied only to plebeians. However, a crucial turning point came in 287 BC with the passage of the Lex Hortensia, which granted plebiscita the full force of law for all Roman citizens, significantly enhancing the tribunes’ legislative power and influence within the Republic.
- Summoning the Senate: From the institution of the tribunate, the Tribunes of the Plebs had the power to convene the Plebeian Assembly. By the third century BC, this power had expanded to include the right to summon the Senate and present legislative proposals for its consideration. This provided the tribunes with a direct avenue for influencing the decisions of the most powerful body in the Republic.
- Proposing Legislation: The tribunes could introduce legislation before the Plebeian Assembly. This power, coupled with the Assembly’s expanded legislative authority following the Lex Hortensia, allowed tribunes to champion laws that benefited the plebeian class and shaped the legal landscape of the Republic.
- Veto Power (ius intercessionis): The most significant power wielded by the tribunes was their ius intercessionis (right of intercession or veto). This unique power enabled a tribune to block any action taken by another magistrate, the Senate, or even another assembly. This veto, which applied to administrative acts, judicial decisions, and legislation, served as the most potent check on the power of other officials, protecting plebeians from potentially harmful or discriminatory actions. The ius intercessionis distinguished the tribunes from other officials and enshrined their role as defenders of the people. Only a dictator was immune to a tribune’s veto. Because tribunes were not magistrates and therefore lacked maior potestas (greater power), they instead utilized the protection of their sacrosanctity when obstructing political actions. Anyone who harmed a tribune or interfered with their official business could be put to death on the tribune’s orders.
- Right of Provocation (provocatio ad populum): The tribunes could also enforce the right of provocatio ad populum, a precursor to the modern concept of habeas corpus. This right allowed a citizen to appeal the actions of a magistrate by invoking the protection of the tribunes. A citizen could shout appello tribunos! (“I call upon the tribunes”) or provoco ad populum! (“I appeal to the people”) to challenge a magistrate’s decision. This invocation required a tribune to assess the situation and determine the legality of the magistrate’s actions. Any act taken in defiance of this right was considered illegal, providing a crucial safeguard against arbitrary or unjust actions by those in authority. This power significantly empowered the tribunes and provided Roman citizens with a level of legal protection unparalleled in the ancient world. If a tribune deemed an appeal valid, they would use their ius intercessionis to block the magistrate’s action.
Limitations
Despite their considerable authority, the powers of the tribunes were not without limitations:
- Geographic Restrictions: The tribunes’ sacrosanctity, and thus their power, relied on the oath sworn by the plebeians to protect them. This oath was valid primarily within the city of Rome and a one-mile radius surrounding it. Outside these boundaries, a tribune’s authority was significantly diminished. This geographic limitation restricted their ability to directly influence events in the provinces or military campaigns beyond Rome’s immediate vicinity.
- Physical Presence: To exercise their veto power, a tribune had to be physically present to pronounce their veto. This meant they could not block actions taken outside their immediate presence or remotely influence decisions made in other parts of the Republic.
Historical Trajectory
The history of the tribunate is closely intertwined with the broader political and social struggles of the Roman Republic. From their inception, the tribunes played a crucial role in advancing the rights of plebeians and challenging the dominance of the patrician elite.
- The Conflict of the Orders: The early years of the tribunate were marked by a series of conflicts between the patricians and plebeians, known as the Conflict of the Orders. The tribunes, through their veto power and ability to mobilize the plebeian assembly, gradually secured greater rights and political influence for the plebeians. A key victory came in 471 BC with the passage of the Lex Publilia, which transferred the election of tribunes from the comitia curiata (an assembly dominated by patricians) to the comitia tributa (an assembly based on geographic tribes), diminishing patrician control over the election process.
- The Decemvirate and its Aftermath: In 454 BC, amidst ongoing tensions between the orders, a commission of ten men, known as the decemviri, was appointed to codify Roman law. During their tenure, the tribunate was temporarily suspended. However, the decemvirs’ abuse of power led to their overthrow and the restoration of the tribunate in 450 BC, along with the other traditional magistracies.
- Consular Tribunes and the Licinian Rogations: The struggle for the consulship, the highest elected office in the Republic, continued for several decades. From 444 to 367 BC, a compromise solution was occasionally employed: the election of tribuni militum consulare potestate (military tribunes with consular power). These officials, potentially representing both patricians and plebeians, held consular authority. However, this arrangement failed to fully satisfy the plebeians, and in 367 BC, following years of political maneuvering and the persistent efforts of tribunes Gaius Licinius Calvus Stolo and Lucius Sextius Lateranus, the patricians finally conceded. The Licinian Rogations were passed, abolishing the consular tribunes and guaranteeing that at least one consul would be a plebeian each year. This marked a significant victory for the plebeians and solidified the tribunes’ role in securing political equality.
- Sulla’s Reforms and the Rise of Caesar and Augustus: The late Republic witnessed a gradual erosion of the tribunes’ power. In 81 BC, Lucius Cornelius Sulla, a powerful dictator, enacted a series of reforms aimed at curtailing the tribunes’ authority. He stripped them of their legislative power and restricted their veto to protecting individual citizens, effectively removing their ability to challenge senatorial decrees or interfere with the broader administration of the Republic. While some of these powers were later restored, the tribunate never fully regained its former influence. In 48 BC, Julius Caesar, as dictator, granted himself tribunicia potestas (tribunician power) without actually holding the office. This allowed him to bypass the tribunes’ veto and further solidify his own authority. Augustus, Caesar’s adopted son and the first Roman Emperor, also received tribunicia potestas in 23 BC, setting a precedent followed by his successors. This effectively rendered the office of tribune subservient to the emperor’s will.
- The Imperial Era: Although the office of tribune persisted throughout the imperial period, its independence and most of its practical functions were lost. It became a largely ceremonial position, a stepping stone for aspiring senators rather than a powerful check on imperial power. While there is evidence of the tribunate’s continued existence into the late fifth century AD, its significance as a defender of the people had long since faded.
Legacy
The Tribune of the Plebs, born out of the struggle for plebeian rights, played a critical role in shaping the political landscape of the Roman Republic. From challenging the dominance of the patrician elite to securing essential legal protections for the common people, the tribunes’ actions had a lasting impact on Roman society. Their veto power, a unique and powerful tool, served as a vital check on the authority of other officials, preventing abuses of power and ensuring a degree of accountability within the government. While the tribunate’s power gradually eroded under the pressures of political change and the rise of the Roman Empire, its legacy as a champion of the people and a symbol of popular sovereignty endured, influencing later political movements and inspiring ongoing debates about the balance of power between the governed and their rulers.
