Greco-Roman

Unearthing Rome’s Hidden History: The Catacombs

In December 2020, archaeologists uncovered a vibrant ancient thermopolium in Pompeii, revealing fascinating insights into Roman dining and social life.

When people think of the Roman Empire, they often picture grand conquests, powerful emperors, monumental architecture, and richly adorned tombs. However, just outside Rome’s city walls lies an extensive network of underground tombs stretching over an estimated one thousand kilometers. These catacombs mark a definitive period in Roman history: the gradual rise of Christianity within the empire.

Where and How Were the Catacombs of Rome Built?

Adhering to Roman law, which prohibited the burial or burning of bodies within city limits, the catacombs are located just outside the city walls. Table X of The Twelve Tables (c. 450 BCE) states, “A dead person shall not be buried or burned in the city.” Consequently, the roads leading to and from Rome, especially the Via Appia Antica constructed in 312 BCE, became popular burial sites. The Catacombs of Saint Callixtus, the largest of these underground networks, served as the official cemetery of the Church of Rome in the 3rd century CE, containing over half a million Christian burials.

Built within pre-existing quarries, burial spaces were created to accommodate privately owned family hypogea. The catacombs were in use from the 1st to the 5th centuries CE. Early burials were generally cremations, but by the 2nd century, inhumation (burial of the body) became more common, leading to more elaborate tombs like the acrosolium, which featured decorated archways. These archways contain some of the earliest and best-preserved Christian artworks from the Roman Empire.

As the catacombs became places of devotion, large basilicas were built above them from the 4th to the 7th centuries to accommodate pilgrims and travelers. By the 8th century, important relics were moved to churches for safekeeping, leading to the catacombs falling into disuse and being forgotten by the 12th century.

  • Procession in Catacomb of Callixtus, Alberto Pisa, c. 1903-1959. Source: Internet Archive.
  • Catacomb of St. Sebastian, three pagan mausolea
  • Painting from Jewish Catacomb Villa Torlonia (3rd – 4th C.)
  • Fresco of fish in Catacomb of Callixtus
  • Christians in a catacomb celebrating communion, threatened by invading Roman soldiers
  • Limestone Ram-Bearer (kriophoros), ca. 6th century BCE.
  • Good Shepherd in the Catacomb of Domitilla
  • Three Youths fresco painting in the Catacomb of Priscilla
  • Basilica of St. Sebastian, Giovanni Battista Piranesi, ca. 1750
  • Catacomb of Domitilla, 3rd- 4th century CE
  • Antonio Bosio’s Roma Sotterranea engraved titlepage

Who Was Buried in the Catacombs?

The Catacombs of Rome are often labeled as “Christian.” However, it wasn’t until the late 3rd century CE that the Christian population began to dominate the underground network. The custom of burying the deceased in underground hypogea was also practiced by Jewish and pagan communities. By the 4th century CE, the catacombs became almost exclusively Christian as the Roman Empire officially adopted Christianity.

The catacombs contain significant pagan burials, often placed side by side with Christian ones, dispelling the myth of a strict separation between pagans and Christians in both life and death. Over sixty catacombs survive in Rome, including six exclusively Jewish ones, making them the largest Jewish archaeological sites outside Israel from ancient times.

The Christianization of the Roman Empire

The images found in the catacombs illustrate the rise of Christianity. Prior to the 3rd century CE, Christians formed a small, often persecuted portion of the Roman population. As a result, early Christian funerary art in the catacombs was similar to traditional Greco-Roman art. During the Great Persecutions, Christians used religiously neutral images, making early Christian art almost invisible in the archaeological record.

Christian philosopher Clement of Alexandria (c. 150-215 CE) advised the use of unassuming symbols like the dove, fish, and ship’s anchor, avoiding depictions of idols or weapons. After Emperor Constantine’s Edict of Milan in 313 CE legalized Christianity, the art within the catacombs began to prominently feature Christian themes, with images of Christ becoming prevalent.

The Origins of Christian Art

The catacombs are significant for documenting the development of early Christian art. Before the 4th century, popular Greco-Roman images such as the shepherd, phoenix, anchor, dove, and fish were used in Christian burials, adapted to convey Christian teachings while maintaining some degree of anonymity. This made it challenging to differentiate early Christian burials from non-Christian ones.

One of the most popular motifs, the Good Shepherd, appears over a hundred times in the catacombs. Believed to be an early representation of Christ, it shares artistic parallels with the ancient Greek kriophoros (ram bearer). Two of the oldest known depictions of the Good Shepherd are found in the Catacombs of Domitilla.

The Rediscovery of the Catacombs

The catacombs lay forgotten until 1578 when workers at the Vigna Del Sanchez stumbled upon an underground cavity along the Via Salaria Nuova, revealing one of the ancient catacombs. Their rediscovery occurred during the Counter-Reformation, sparking religious and ideological debates between Catholic and Protestant scholars. Catholic priest Richard Lassels and 16th-century archaeologist Antonio Bosio played significant roles in documenting and interpreting these underground burial sites, reinforcing the Catholic narrative of ancient Roman Christianity.

The Catacombs Today

Many catacombs still exist today, though only a few are accessible to the public. The largest networks, the Catacombs of Saint Callixtus and the Catacombs of Saint Sebastian, are located along the Via Appia Antica. Nearby are the Catacombs of Domitilla, the oldest known catacombs, and the Jewish catacomb Vigna Randanini. On the other side of the city, visitors can explore the Catacombs of Priscilla and the Catacombs of St. Agnes.

These catacombs are managed by the Roman Catholic Church through the Pontifical Commission for Sacred Archaeology. They are significant for their role in revealing the origins of early Christian art and documenting the Christianization of the Roman Empire, shaping Christianity as we know it today. When visiting Rome, exploring these ancient burial sites offers a unique glimpse into the city’s rich history, forever cementing its legacy as the “eternal city.”

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