The innovative technology behind Norse longships enabled the Vikings to maintain dominance over their neighbors for three centuries. So, what set Viking ship design apart, and what advantages did it offer?
From the 9th to the 11th centuries, the Vikings emerged as a powerful force in Western Europe, largely thanks to their advanced longship technology. Their vessels were built for speed, capable of navigating shallow waters, and even transporting them over land, which provided a significant strategic edge. It’s fascinating to think that despite their unique design, these ships successfully made journeys to the Americas and back.
So, how were Viking ships constructed? What distinguished them from other European ship designs? And what were the pros and cons of their distinctive approach to sailing?
Not Just Warships
While we often focus on Viking longships, they actually constructed a variety of vessels. These ranged from small fishing boats to larger barge ferries used for transporting goods and livestock.
The heavy merchant ships known as Knarr were designed for freight. They were broad, deep, and not particularly fast, capable of carrying up to 40 tons of cargo. These ships likely operated along the Scandinavian coast and to colonies in the North Sea. In contrast, traders navigating Russian rivers and the Caspian Sea preferred lighter vessels called Byrding.
Longships are particularly notable because they were the vessels that carried Viking raiders as they invaded neighboring Christian lands. They were also used for the ceremonial ship burials of wealthy and significant individuals.
The design of longships varied by region and evolved throughout the Viking Age. For instance, the earliest longships were crafted from sturdy oak, which was ideal for sailing, requiring about three oak trunks to build one ship. By the 10th century, while the Danes continued to use oak, the Norwegians and Swedes had transitioned to more readily available pine.
Despite these variations, most Viking longships shared several key characteristics. Interestingly, there’s no evidence that the Vikings relied on written plans or diagrams; instead, the knowledge of shipbuilding was likely passed down through hands-on training from master craftsmen to their apprentices, often their sons, over many years of collaboration.
Viking Longship Design
Viking longships were primarily known for their long and narrow design. The exact length varied based on the number of rowing benches, which were indicated by holes on either side for easy deployment and retrieval of oars. Interestingly, many of these vessels didn’t have actual benches; instead, rowers often sat on their sea chests to save space.
The smallest surviving longships featured just six benches on each side. For effective warfare, a longship typically required at least 20 benches, allowing for a crew of 41—40 rowers plus a steering coxswain. These boats, referred to as Snekkja, are the most commonly found type, averaging about 55 feet in length and 8 feet in width.
On the other hand, there were larger ships known as Skeid, which boasted 30 rowing benches on each side. The longest one discovered so far is called Roskilde 6, part of a group of five ships found in Roskilde Fjord during the 1960s. It appears to have been deliberately sunk to create a blockade in the fjord around the early 11th century and measures an impressive 121 feet. While sagas mention even larger longships, none have yet been uncovered by archaeologists. Besides being long, Viking longships were also quite shallow, with most having a maximum draught of only 0.5 to 1 meter. This feature allowed them to navigate into shallower waters and rivers that other Europeans deemed impassable. It’s how the Vikings managed to reach Paris and catch cities off guard, thinking they were safe from river invasions.
These ships were lightweight too, enabling the crew to carry them over land between bodies of water. There’s also solid evidence suggesting that they would flip their ships upside down to use them as shelters while on land.
In Norse mythology, the god Freyr possessed a remarkable ship named Skidlbladnir, which was large enough to hold all the gods and their horses in full armor but could magically fold down like a piece of paper to fit into the pocket of a god. Quite the dream vessel, indeed! These remarkable boats were constructed from long overlapping oak planks that were nailed together. To make them watertight, the gaps between the planks were filled with materials like wool, moss, or a mix of animal hair combined with tar or tallow. This building technique is referred to as clinker or lapstrake construction.
Iron rivets measuring three inches and round iron washers served as fasteners, along with wooden treenails that expanded when wet. A treenail is essentially a wooden dowel designed to fit snugly into a drilled hole, similar to a bolt. The planks, known as strakes, were attached to ribs that connected to a narrow keel running lengthwise down the center of the hull. Interestingly, the thickness of these strakes was often quite thin, ranging from just 0.78 to 1.18 inches—almost as thin as paper!
Some Viking longships were adorned to resemble dragons or sea serpents, featuring fierce heads carved at the bow. These ships, known as Drakkar, must have been an intimidating sight on the water!
How to Sail
Viking longships were equipped with sails, typically featuring one large square sail made from wool and reinforced with leather strips to keep its shape even when wet. When the winds were calm, Vikings would row their ships instead of relying on slaves, as there simply wasn’t enough room for them.
Interestingly, the oars on these ships varied in length, ranging from 17 to 19 feet to accommodate the ship’s slight bulge in the middle. Vikings also hung their shields along the sides of the boat near their rowing spots. This not only provided some protection against arrows during battles but also served as a handy storage solution.
While the Vikings didn’t leave behind any ship designs or evidence of navigational tools like astrolabes or sextants, the sagas suggest that Leif Erikson learned how to reach North America from another Viking over a drink. In their early voyages, they likely stayed close to the shore, using the landscape, ocean depth, and sightings of birds and marine life to navigate. However, this method would have been less effective for longer journeys to places like England, Ireland, Iceland, Greenland, and beyond.
Despite the lack of physical evidence, the sagas mention that Vikings used the sun for navigation, referencing sunstones—tools that helped sailors find the sun on cloudy days. One well-known tale tells of King Olaf of Norway asking the hero Sigurd to locate the sun behind dark clouds without any instruments. Sigurd successfully does this, and the king uses a sunstone to verify his findings. Unfortunately, no sunstones have been discovered in archaeological digs.
If the Vikings relied on the sun for navigation, they likely utilized a sun compass. This device consists of a simple vertical pointer placed on a flat surface, which features a curved line engraved on it. The shadow created by the pointer varies depending on the latitude and the time of year. This is similar to how European sailors used sextants, which required a nautical almanac to help interpret their readings throughout the year.
The Vikings typically sailed during the summer months and would have been familiar with the sun’s position during that time. While they were known for raiding throughout the year, in winter, they focused on nearby targets.
Archaeological digs at a Viking-era farm in Greenland uncovered remnants of a circular disk with carvings, suggesting it might have been a sun compass. Additionally, on the Faroe Islands, locals once used an instrument called the Solskyggafjol, which closely resembles the sun compass. This could indicate that the technology was adopted from the Vikings who settled there.
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Built for Raiding
While various ship designs existed throughout Europe, many vessels featured bluff bows, which resembled a barn door shaped into a semicircle. This design made those ships slower since the blunt front pushed against the water instead of slicing through it like the sleek Viking ships and modern vessels.
Additionally, European ships tended to be taller, with structures rising from both the stern and bow. This height created more wind resistance, making them less stable in rough weather.
In terms of draught—the part of the ship submerged—other European ships had deeper hulls and rounded bottoms that extended far below the water’s surface. This depth restricted their ability to navigate shallow waters, unlike the Vikings who thrived in such environments.
So why were Viking ships designed this way? The bulkier European ships offered more space, were safer, and were less likely to take on water during storms. In contrast, Viking ships were at risk of flooding but could access shallower areas. However, navigating these waters required skilled sailors to avoid hidden dangers that could damage their hulls.
Moreover, Viking ships had limited storage and no sheltered sleeping areas. Evidence suggests that when they sailed near the coast, Vikings would anchor and camp on land. If they couldn’t reach shore, they had to sleep on deck under animal skins. This makes their voyages between Greenland and North America even more remarkable, as they faced two to six weeks at sea.
The Vikings were aware of other European shipbuilding techniques, having observed them firsthand. Nevertheless, they seemed to favor their own faster and more adaptable designs, despite the increased risks involved.
A Viking Armada
At the beginning of the Viking Age, most Viking ships were owned by farmers living along the coast, who used them primarily for transporting goods. However, when local military leaders summoned their loyal followers to battle, these farmers would bring their boats to join the fight. As time went on, wealthier Viking chieftains began to build their own fleets, but they still relied on the boats owned by their allies to bolster their numbers.
Historical accounts suggest that the Vikings were capable of assembling some impressive fleets. For instance, during their attack on the Franks in 845, they reportedly sailed up the Seine River with 129 ships. Additionally, it’s said that Canute the Great commanded a staggering 1,200 ships while engaged in combat in Norway in 1028—an impressive force even by today’s standards.
In many respects, Viking longships mirrored the values and structure of Viking society. They emphasized the importance of victory and achievement over mere safety and security.
