Alexander of Macedon, famously known as “the Great,” passed away in June 323 BCE after conquering the largest empire the world had ever seen. When he was born, the Achaemenid Empire of Persia extended from the Danube River in the West to the Indus River in the East. By the time of his death, Alexander had brought it all under his control.
More than 250 years after his death, Alexander’s achievements had become legendary within the burgeoning Roman Empire. Roman emperors and generals idolized him, seeking to emulate his success. In 54 BCE, Roman general Marcus Licinius Crassus attempted to follow in Alexander’s footsteps, aiming to achieve greatness through conquest.
Crassus was not the first Roman to draw comparisons with Alexander. Scipio Africanus, who famously defeated Hannibal and destroyed Carthage, was often likened to the Macedonian conqueror. Pompey, known as “the Great” during his lifetime, also drew such comparisons. The historian Plutarch even compared Julius Caesar to Alexander in a now-lost work. However, Crassus was the first Roman to face the resurgent Persian Empire with an army behind him.
Crassus’s Early Life and Rise
Crassus’s father, Publius, was elected consul, the highest office in the Roman Republic, in 97 BCE. The following year, Publius became the proconsul governor of Roman Spain, where he fought to extend Roman control over the Lusitanian peoples of modern Portugal. It is likely that young Marcus served alongside his father in Spain, gaining valuable military experience.
Publius sided with Lucius Cornelius Sulla in a civil war against Gaius Marius. In 87 BCE, Publius and his eldest son were killed by Marius’s followers. Much like Alexander, who also lost his powerful father to political rivals, Crassus became the heir to his father’s legacy. Fearing for his life, he fled to Spain, where he was protected by his father’s friends.
While in Spain, Crassus raised a small army of about 2,500 men to support Sulla against Marius and avenge his family. When Sulla invaded Italy, Crassus was tasked with raising Italian troops for Sulla’s cause. His success in this endeavor led Sulla to appoint him commander of the right wing of his army during the decisive Battle of the Colline Gate in 82 BCE. Sulla’s forces triumphed, thanks in part to Crassus’s leadership.
Crassus, like Alexander, delighted in commanding the right wing. Alexander had led his elite cavalry, “The Companions,” from this position during key battles against the Persian King Darius III. At the Battle of Issus in 333 BCE, Alexander’s strategic charge at Darius’s chariot caused the Persian king to flee, leading to a Macedonian victory. Similarly, at the Battle of Gaugamela in 331 BCE, Alexander’s maneuvers on the right flank again forced Darius to flee, collapsing the Persian line and empire.
In the Battle of the Colline Gate, Sulla’s left wing faltered. While Sulla attempted to rally the troops, Crassus emulated Alexander by leading a decisive charge from the right wing into the Marian line, securing victory for Sulla. This success earned Crassus the task of confiscating and selling the property of Sulla’s enemies, a role he used to amass great wealth, eventually becoming the richest man in Rome.
Spartacus and the Slave Revolt
Crassus’s wealth continued to grow until 73 BCE when Spartacus, a Thracian gladiator, led a massive slave revolt. His army of escaped slaves repeatedly defeated Roman forces, capturing weapons and growing stronger. By the following year, they were the scourge of Italy, defeating three Roman armies and turning south to ravage the peninsula.
Rome’s best generals were away, leaving the Senate desperate. Seizing the moment, Crassus offered to finance and command the army himself. The Senate accepted, and Crassus quickly recruited seasoned veterans, forming an army of over 40,000 battle-hardened legionnaires. Despite an early setback where a disobedient commander led his troops to defeat, Crassus restored discipline by decimating the disgraced unit, a practice Alexander reportedly used to maintain control.
As Crassus prepared his army, Spartacus reached Calabria, seeking transport to Sicily, where slave rebellion was already simmering. Crassus’s disciplined and well-equipped forces, however, posed a formidable challenge to Spartacus’s plans.
Thus, Crassus’s life mirrored that of Alexander in many ways—from their early experiences to their military strategies and leadership styles. Both men left indelible marks on history, inspiring future generations of leaders with their ambition and prowess.
Spartacus, desperate to secure transport to Sicily, offered locals substantial amounts of money. However, the ship owners, fearing Rome more than the slave leader, took his gold but failed to provide the necessary boats. As Spartacus waited in vain, Crassus advanced his army behind the trapped slaves. In a remarkable display of Roman engineering, Crassus’s men, along with conscripted civilians, built a trench with ramparts along the 37-40 mile neck of Calabria, effectively trapping the slaves.
rassus, who tried to parlay with the Parthian commander Surena, was killed when the fighting suddenly resumed. He is shown falling dead from his horse (lower right) as Parthians assault the Romans. 
The gladiator Spartacus led a slave rebellion in 73 BCE, defeating militia and soldiers sent to capture him and his growing number of followers. After two years, Marcus Crassus led eight legions (40,000 men) to end the revolt, though Spartacus’ body was never found. As a warning, 6,000 recaptured slaves were crucified along a 100-mile stretch of the Apian way. This color engraving made from the 19th century illustration “Death of Spartacus,” by H. Vogel. 
Lucius Cornelius Sulla and his army fight their way into Rome in 82 BC. Sulla’s victory made him a virtual dictator, and he extracted a bloody revenge on his opponents..
The Breakthrough and Internal Strife
In their initial encounter, Spartacus, desperate to break free from the trap, managed to break through the Roman lines in the middle of the night, allowing most of his army to escape. However, internal discord was fracturing the unity of the slave army along nationalistic lines. Approximately 12,000 Gauls and Germanic people split from Spartacus and did not participate in the breakout. Crassus, seizing the opportunity, set his larger army on the Gauls and destroyed them.
Despite this, Spartacus and his main army remained at large. Meanwhile, Crassus persuaded the Senate to recall Pompey from Spain and Lucullus from Thrace to aid in quelling the rebellion. However, realizing that these renowned generals might claim the glory of defeating Spartacus, Crassus resolved to crush the rebels himself.
Spartacus had taken up positions in mountainous terrain. Crassus, eager to claim victory, sent his vanguard to attack before the rest of his army arrived, resulting in a repulse that gave the slaves false hope. Once Crassus had assembled his full force, he launched a decisive attack, crushing Spartacus and his followers, and killing Spartacus in the process. The slaves, exhausted and without supplies, were in a weakened state, leading to Crassus’s overwhelming victory.
However, about 5,000 slaves escaped and headed north, only to be intercepted by Pompey’s arriving army from Spain. Pompey wrote to the Senate, claiming that while Crassus had defeated the slave armies, it was he who had ended the rebellion. Consequently, Pompey was awarded a Triumph, while Crassus received a lesser ovation. This increased the rivalry between the two men, who were named co-consuls for the following year (70 BCE).
The Aftermath: Mutual Interests and Diverging Paths
Despite their rivalry, Crassus and Pompey had mutual interests. Pompey, the most powerful Roman general, and Crassus, the wealthiest and most influential senator, found common ground during their joint consulship. Afterward, Crassus focused on amassing his fortune and building political alliances in Rome, while Pompey continued his military campaigns. Pompey eradicated piracy in the Mediterranean and Black Seas, and then took command of the Roman forces against Mithridates VI of Pontus.
Pompey reinvigorated the Roman army and defeated the armies of Pontus, causing Mithridates to flee to Armenia. Pompey negotiated with the Parthians for a joint invasion of Armenia, but when the Romans triumphed without Parthian aid, he canceled the deal. Despite this, Parthian cavalry had already entered Armenian-occupied Gordyene. Pompey restored Tigranes to the throne as a Roman client king and sent his legates, Aulus Gabinius and Lucius Afranius, to demonstrate Roman dominance. Gabinius marched to the Tigris River, while Afranius crossed Mesopotamia to Antioch, passing through the town of Carrhae. Pompey’s annexation of Pontus and Syria further extended the Roman Empire, disregarding Parthian claims.
Thus, the struggle between Spartacus and Crassus, coupled with the intricate political and military maneuvers of Rome, highlight the complexities of power and ambition in ancient history.
Crassus’s Political Maneuvering and Financial Strategies
While Pompey was engaged in military campaigns in the East, Crassus focused on expanding his wealth and influence in Rome by financing promising politicians from both the aristocratic and equestrian classes. One of his most notable protégés was the young Julius Caesar. Crassus loaned Caesar a substantial amount of money, supporting his early political and military endeavors.
When Pompey returned to Rome under suspicion from the Senate for overstepping his mandate, Crassus surprisingly supported his rival. This uneasy alliance eventually led to their mutual backing of Julius Caesar for consul in 59 BCE. Caesar cleverly balanced his debt to Crassus by arranging the marriage of his daughter Julia to Pompey, thereby strengthening his ties to both men. Crassus further solidified his connection to Caesar by sending his son, Publius, to serve in Caesar’s army as a cavalry captain.
As consul, Caesar skillfully passed measures that benefited both Crassus and Pompey. In return, he was appointed proconsul of Cisalpine Gaul (northern Italy), which he used as a base to expand his own power. With Caesar away from Rome, Pompey and Crassus’s factions frequently clashed in the streets, with the populace divided in their loyalties.
By 55 BCE, with Caesar’s support, Pompey and Crassus reconciled and were once again elected joint consuls. During their consulship, Pompey’s ally Gabinius, the proconsul governor of Syria, was involved in various conflicts, including supporting a Parthian pretender and restoring King Ptolemy XII Auletes to the Egyptian throne. Among Gabinius’s soldiers was a young cavalry captain named Marcus Antonius, later known as Mark Antony.
The First Triumvirate and Division of Power
The uneasy alliance between Crassus, Pompey, and Caesar, known as the First Triumvirate, informally controlled Roman politics from 60 to 53 BCE. Caesar was given another five years to subdue Gaul, Pompey received the governorship of Spain, and Crassus was appointed governor of Syria with command over seven legions.
Crassus, yearning for military greatness comparable to Pompey and Caesar, was determined to achieve notable victories. His prior achievements, such as ending the Spartacus rebellion and his wealth accumulation, were overshadowed by the success of his rivals. Crassus desired conquests that would secure his place in history without the interference of his peers.
Crassus arrived in Syria in 55 BCE, succeeding Gabinius. He supported the Parthian pretender Mithradates, who controlled wealthy cities in Babylonia. The Armenian king also offered support, providing up to 40,000 troops. Crassus reflected on the relative ease of his task compared to Alexander the Great’s arduous campaigns. Most of the territories Alexander had to conquer were already under Roman control.
Crassus quickly crossed the Euphrates and marched on local towns, encountering minimal resistance. As winter approached, he left a garrison on the east bank of the river and returned to Syria. During the winter, Crassus governed his province, trained his soldiers, and raised funds for the forthcoming campaign. He also levied taxes, even confiscating funds from the Temple of Jerusalem, an act viewed by the Jews as divine retribution for his eventual downfall.
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Routes and Changing Strategies
Crassus had several routes to choose from for his invasion. The first, following the Euphrates River valley, would lead to Seleucia and Babylon, where he could meet Mithradates. However, after Mithradates was defeated by the Parthian general Surena, this route became less favorable.
The second route, through the Armenian mountains to Media, was advised by the Armenian king Artavasdes, who offered 40,000 troops. However, Crassus doubted Artavasdes’s loyalty and snubbed the offer, leading Artavasdes to withdraw his support and await the victor.
The third route, through the Mesopotamian plateau, was advised by an Arab chieftain named Ariamnes or Abgarus. Crassus, eager to emulate Alexander the Great, chose this route, aiming to defeat the Parthian army and secure the rich cities of Babylonia. Despite warnings and changing circumstances, Crassus proceeded with his plans, confident in his strategy.
Crassus crossed the Euphrates and initially encountered little opposition, easily dispersing local Parthian forces. However, during the winter, the strategic situation changed. The Parthian king Orodes sent Surena to defeat Mithradates, depriving Crassus of a valuable ally. Nevertheless, Crassus pressed on, determined to follow in Alexander’s footsteps and achieve his own legendary victories.
As spring approached, Crassus faced critical decisions about his invasion route and strategy. His ultimate goal was the wealthy city of Seleucia, but he now faced a formidable Parthian force under Surena. Crassus’s ambition and determination to emulate Alexander the Great set the stage for a dramatic and fateful campaign against the Parthian Empire.
Crassus’s Pursuit of Alexander’s Legacy
According to Plutarch and other ancient historians, Crassus commanded a substantial force for his campaign against the Parthians. His army comprised seven legions, approximately 35,000 infantry, supplemented by 4,000 auxiliary infantry and 4,000 cavalry. Interestingly, this force size mirrored that of Alexander the Great’s army when he embarked on his Persian conquest.
Following Alexander’s Path
Arrian, a biographer of Alexander, records that the Macedonian crossed the Euphrates River at Thapsacus, a location whose exact name and position remain unknown today. Cassius Dio, writing in the early third century CE, suggested that Crassus also crossed the river at this location, implying that Crassus consciously followed Alexander’s invasion route. This view, while debated by historians, underscores Crassus’s intent to emulate Alexander.
Upon crossing the river, Alexander encountered a Persian satrap named Mazaeus who commanded 3,000 horsemen but fled at the sight of the Macedonian army. Crassus experienced a similar scenario. Plutarch notes that Crassus’s scouts reported the tracks of many horses fleeing from pursuit, which bolstered Crassus’s confidence, convincing him that his campaign was unfolding like Alexander’s.
The Influence of Ariamnes and Parthian Strategy
An Arab chieftain named Ariamnes, who had once allied with Pompey, visited the Roman camp and convinced Crassus to advance quickly to confront the Persian forces before they could fortify positions on the Tigris River. Plutarch criticizes Crassus for being swayed by Ariamnes, but it is likely that Crassus, like Alexander before him, was already inclined to prevent his enemy from forming a strong defensive line.
The Parthians, aware of Alexander’s tactics against Darius III, adapted their strategy accordingly. Instead of retreating behind the Tigris, they allowed Crassus to advance to a remote area favorable for cavalry combat. Here, they launched a surprise attack, using their superior mounted forces to encircle the Romans. Just before this, Ariamnes and his men left the Roman camp, having completed their role in the Parthian plan.
The Battle of Carrhae and Crassus’s Downfall
Crassus, attempting to negotiate with the Parthian commander Surena, was killed when the fighting resumed unexpectedly. The Roman army, surrounded by cavalry, formed a hollow square, a tactic effective against infantry but vulnerable to Parthian archers. The Parthians, contrary to Roman expectations, continually resupplied their quivers from a camel caravan and sustained their attack, devastating the Roman forces.
Crassus’s son Publius led a cavalry charge, only to be lured into a trap by the Parthian heavy cavalry, or cataphracts. The armored Parthian forces swiftly overwhelmed the Roman cavalry, and Publius’s severed head was thrown into the Roman square, deepening Crassus’s despair.
Retreat and Final Defeat
That night, Crassus attempted a retreat to the town of Carrhae, but the news of their defeat preceded them, and the city gates remained closed to the defeated Romans. The following day, the Parthians pursued, killing the Roman wounded. Crassus’s attempt to negotiate with Surena resulted in his death.
Some Roman infantry managed to escape to the safety of the west bank of the Euphrates by marching at night and hiding during the day. Many of the remaining cavalry also escaped, led by Gaius Cassius Longinus, who would later become one of Julius Caesar’s assassins.
Crassus’s Legacy
Crassus’s name would be forever tarnished by this disastrous campaign. His failure and death at the hands of the Parthians would be remembered infamously as long as Roman and Byzantine historians recorded their history.
