Genghis Khan, also known as Chinggis Khan, established the Mongol Empire in 1206 and ruled until his death in 1227. Originally named Temujin, he earned the title Genghis Khan, believed to mean ‘universal ruler’, after uniting the Mongol tribes through force. He was known for his brutal tactics, leading to the deaths of many innocent people during his conquests, as recorded by medieval historians.
Genghis Khan’s military campaigns included attacks on the Xi Xia, Jin states, and Song China, as well as invasions into Persia, Afghanistan, and Russia. Despite his fearsome reputation, he was also an effective leader who introduced writing to the Mongols, established their first legal code, promoted trade, and allowed religious freedom by permitting the practice of all religions within the Mongol territories. Through these efforts, Genghis Khan laid the groundwork for an empire that would eventually encompass a significant portion of the world under his successors.
Childhood and Adolescence
The life of Genghis Khan is recounted in the Secret History of the Mongols, a text that includes some fantastical elements and is believed to have originated in the early 13th century, along with later Chinese and Arab sources. Born to noble parents, he was named Temujin (Temuchin) after a Tartar captive. The exact year of his birth is uncertain, with some scholars suggesting 1162 and others 1167. Legend has it that he was born holding a clot of blood in his right hand, seen as a foreboding sign. His mother, Hoelun, and father, Yisugei, a tribal leader, arranged for him to marry Borte, the daughter of another influential Mongol leader, Dei-secen. However, before the marriage could take place, Temujin’s father was poisoned by a rival, leaving the young Temujin and his mother abandoned on the Asian steppe.
Things took a turn for the worse when Temujin was captured by a rival clan leader, possibly due to an incident involving the death of his older half-brother, Bekter. Escaping during the night, Temujin gathered loyal followers and sought refuge with Toghril, chief of the Kerait tribe, who his father had once aided. He then married Borte, his intended bride from years earlier.
Genghis Khan went on to lead successful campaigns and establish a vast empire.In a short amount of time, Temujin’s leadership and military skills led to victories over local rivals, resulting in the growth of his army. The conflicts were intense, with one tribal leader known for boiling captives in large cauldrons. Despite the challenges, Temujin successfully united most nomadic tribes in central Asia by forming alliances among them. Through a combination of diplomacy, generosity, and ruthless tactics, Temujin established himself as the dominant leader. Defeated tribes were either forced to join his army or faced annihilation. Temujin, known for his bravery in battle, rewarded courage displayed by his enemies, such as appointing a man named Jebe as a general for his valor during combat.
The Grand Khan
As Temujin’s army grew in size, he spent about a decade defeating various rivals such as the Tartars, Kereyids, Naimans, and Merkids. In 1206, a Mongol assembly known as kurultai gathered at the Kerulen river and officially proclaimed Temujin as their leader, bestowing upon him the title of Genghis Khan, which likely translates to ‘universal’ leader. The goal was to merge this newfound power with traditional Mongol expertise in horsemanship and archery to not only conquer neighboring states but also establish an empire capable of subduing China.
Despite his elevated status, Genghis Khan maintained his nomadic lifestyle, residing in a large portable tent called a yurt. Prior to the formation of the Mongol Empire, the nomadic Mongols did not settle in villages or towns but moved according to seasonal needs. Genghis Khan introduced written Mongol language using Uighur Turks’ script, enabling the creation of a legal code called the Yasa, which outlined punishments for various offenses. He also implemented a postal system utilizing horse-riding couriers to swiftly relay messages during military campaigns.
To strengthen his army, Genghis Khan departed from the traditional tribal divisions among Mongols to prevent internal conflicts. Instead, he established and expanded an elite bodyguard unit called the kesikten from 800 to 10,000 men. Members of this unit, comprised of sons and brothers of senior commanders, pledged unwavering loyalty to the Khan in exchange for special privileges in war spoils. Additionally, many members took on administrative roles in conquered territories, further solidifying Genghis Khan’s control.
Mongol Military Tactics
The Mongols were known for their innovative military strategies and tactics.The Mongols were a unified force with several advantages over their larger and more powerful neighbors. They were skilled archers using composite bows, tough soldiers capable of enduring long rides with minimal supplies, and had sturdy horses that could withstand harsh conditions. Their cavalry consisted of both light and heavy units, with each rider having multiple spare horses for increased mobility. The Mongols were adaptable, incorporating enemy tactics and technology into their own strategies.
Genghis Khan exploited internal divisions in enemies by stirring up old rivalries, often gathering intelligence through spies and merchants. The motivation for Mongol warfare was primarily to acquire plunder, with successful commanders receiving land to govern and the Great Khan receiving tribute from vassal rulers. Once mobilized, the Mongol forces were formidable and challenging to defeat.
The largest empires in history
The Jin State, also known as the Jurchen Jin Dynasty, was targeted by Genghis Khan in a series of invasions in 1205, 1209, and 1211. Despite the Jin’s large army, Genghis Khan’s swift tactics proved to be more effective. He would sack cities, retreat, and then repeat the process, causing chaos for the Jin forces. Additionally, Genghis Khan employed brutal tactics such as destroying cities, killing citizens, and using captives as human shields to instill fear.
Internal issues like corruption, natural disasters, and political assassinations further weakened the Jin state. In 1214, they were forced to sign a peace treaty with the Mongols and pay tribute. However, the respite was short-lived as the Mongols attacked again in 1215 after the Jin moved their capital south. This led to Genghis Khan viewing the Jin’s actions as a rejection of their vassal status.In 1215, the Great Khan launched an attack on the Tangut state of Xi Xia in northern China, repeating his previous raids from 1209. The Chinese Song Dynasty, instead of forming an alliance with the Jin to create a buffer zone against the Mongols, chose to ally with the Khan. This decision was made despite ongoing conflicts between the Jin and Song dynasties since the previous century.
The Mongols continued their assaults on China in the following years, destroying approximately 90 cities in 1212-1213 alone. Many Chinese and Khitan soldiers who were dissatisfied or captured during these attacks were incorporated into the Mongol army. In 1215, the Song Dynasty launched a failed counterattack into Mongol territory, leading to the capture of Chinese general P’eng I-pin and one of his successors in 1217. Additionally, Beijing was seized and burned for a month in 1215.
Furthermore, the Mongols extended their military actions to Korea, pursuing fleeing Khitans in 1216 and receiving support from a Korean army in battles against the Khitans in 1219.
After a period of stability, the Mongols resumed their military campaigns by attacking Korea in 1232 and 1235, and China in 1234, leading to the downfall of the Jin state. It became evident that they aimed to conquer all of East Asia, with Song China vulnerable from the north due to internal conflicts and conservative foreign policies. The Mongols posed a significant threat to the region’s stability.
Western campaigns
In Western Asia, Genghis Khan expanded his conquests by invading Turkistan, Uzbekistan, and Iran between 1218 and 1220, targeting the Khwarazm Empire. Despite diplomatic attempts, the Shah of Khwarazm’s refusal led to a brutal Mongol invasion, resulting in the destruction of cities, loss of lives, and disruption of infrastructure. Genghis earned a reputation for his ruthless tactics during these campaigns.
The Mongols continued their expansion into northern Afghanistan and defeated a combined army in Kalka before returning to Mongolia, solidifying their reputation as a formidable military force. Despite their brutal conquests, Genghis Khan also established stable governance in conquered territories, allowing local rulers to retain power, promoting religious tolerance, encouraging trade, and protecting merchants.
The military campaigns led by Genghis Khan and the Mongols in Western Asia and on the fringes of Europe attracted the attention of historians from different regions, including Persian historian Minhaj al-Siraj Juzjani (b. 1193). Juzjani described Genghis Khan as a tall, strong man with white facial hair, distinctive cat-like eyes, possessing remarkable energy, intelligence, and strategic acumen. He was depicted as both fearsome and just, a formidable leader who was relentless in battle and ruthless towards his enemies. This description of Genghis Khan, already a legendary figure during his time, is captured in historical texts such as Tabakat-i Nasiri around 1260.
Passing and Impact
Genghis Khan passed away on 18 August 1227 due to an unknown illness, possibly stemming from a fall from his horse during a hunting expedition a few months earlier. His death occurred while he was besieging the Xia state’s capital, Zhongxing, in northwest China. The news of his demise was concealed from the Mongol army until after the city fell and its inhabitants were massacred. His body was then taken back to Mongolia for burial, with the location of his tomb remaining a mystery, leading to much speculation. Historical accounts suggest his tomb is near the sacred mountain Burkan Kuldun, and that his son Ogedei made offerings of 40 slave girls and 40 horses for his journey into the afterlife.
Anticipating disputes among his successors over control of the Mongol Empire, Genghis Khan had already arranged for the empire to be divided among his sons Jochi, Chagatai, Tolui, and Ogedei. Ogedei succeeded him as the Great Khan in 1229, ruling until his death in 1241. Kublai Khan, Genghis’ grandson, further expanded the empire by conquering most of China, leading to the downfall of the Song Dynasty and establishing the Yuan Dynasty with himself as emperor. This marked the beginning of Mongol dominance in China, followed by further campaigns in regions like the Middle East, Korea, and Japan.
Despite his empire’s vast reach, Genghis Khan’s legacy extends beyond territorial conquests. He is revered as a legendary figure and considered a founding father of the Mongolian people, with his worship experiencing a revival in modern times. Special ceremonies in honor of Genghis Khan are still held in Ulaanbaatar, the capital of Mongolia, reflecting his enduring significance in the country’s culture and history.
