The Mongol Empire, established by Genghis Khan in 1206, was a powerful entity that spanned from the Black Sea to the Korean peninsula. Genghis Khan united nomadic tribes of the Asian steppe to create a formidable army known for its skilled cavalry. The Mongols, renowned for their expertise in horseback riding and archery, conquered vast territories in Central Asia, Iran, Russia, Eastern Europe, and China.
Following Genghis Khan’s reign, his descendants ruled different parts of the empire, with the most influential being the Mongol Yuan Dynasty in China led by Kublai Khan. Over time, the Mongols transitioned from their nomadic ways to adopting settled lifestyles and converting to religions like Tibetan Buddhism or Islam. This shift marked a decline in their military strength, leading to internal conflicts and eventual downfall of the khanates.
Despite not leaving behind significant architectural or political legacies, the Mongols played a crucial role in connecting the East and West through expanded trade routes, diplomatic exchanges, and cultural interactions. Their impact on world culture included facilitating the movement of people, ideas, and goods between Eurasia and the Far East.
Steppe Nomads
The Mongols were nomadic people who lived on the Asian steppe and raised various animals such as sheep, goats, horses, camels, and yaks. They moved with the seasons and dwelled in temporary camps made of circular felt tents called yurts or gers. Due to Mongolia’s harsh climate, their clothing was warm, durable, and practical, typically made from felt and animal furs. Both men and women wore similar attire including heelless boots, baggy trousers, a long jacket-robe known as deel, leather belts, and conical hats with earflaps, with undergarments made from cotton or silk.
The Mongol diet mainly consisted of dairy products like cheese, yogurt, butter, and dried milk curds (kurut). They also consumed a mildly alcoholic drink called kumis made from mare’s milk. Meat was obtained through hunting, while fruits and vegetables were gathered through foraging. Special hunts, known as nerge, were organized to stock up for winter and provide meat for feasts. This hunting strategy involved riders driving game into a confined area to be easily killed by mounted archers. These hunting techniques and organization skills would later benefit the Mongols in warfare.
In Mongol society, men typically hunted while women cooked, but there were instances where both genders performed various tasks interchangeably, such as using a bow and riding. Women took care of animals, set up camps, drove wagons, tended to children, prepared food, and entertained guests. Women had more rights compared to other Asian cultures at that time, being able to own and inherit property. Some women even served as regents during the periods between the rule of the Great Khans. Women were also actively involved in religious practices in Mongol society.
Religious Beliefs
Religious faith and convictions.The Mongols’ religious beliefs encompassed a combination of animism, ancestor worship, and shamanism, lacking sacred texts or specific rituals. They believed that spirits resided in natural elements like fire, earth, and water, as well as in geographical features such as mountains and storms. Shamans, who could be men or women, were believed to communicate with these spirits in trance states, aiding in finding lost souls and predicting future events.
In addition to their native beliefs, the Mongols also embraced other religions such as Nestorian Christianity and Tibetan Buddhism (Lamaism) from the 14th century onwards, possibly attracted by their shamanistic aspects. Islam was prevalent in the western khanates. However, the predominant deities worshipped were the Earth or Mother goddess, Etugen, symbolizing fertility, and Tengri (Gok Monggke Tenggeri), the ‘Blue Sky’ or ‘Eternal Heaven.’ Tengri was revered as a protective deity, with tribal elites believing that he granted the Mongol people a divine mandate to rule the world. This belief motivated Genghis Khan and his successors to expand their empire across Asia, establishing the largest empire in history at that time.
Genghis Khan’s Establishment
The Mongol nomadic tribes, accustomed to a challenging lifestyle, were highly mobile, skilled in horseback riding and archery from a young age. These attributes made them formidable warriors capable of enduring lengthy and intricate military campaigns, traversing vast territories quickly, and surviving with minimal resources. Women played a crucial role in supporting the Mongol army through tasks like setting up camps and transportation.
Genghis Khan, originally named Temujin and born around 1162, overcame a difficult upbringing marked by abandonment and poverty. He proved himself as a capable military leader under Toghril, the chief of the Kerait tribe. The primary source detailing Genghis Khan’s early empire is “The Secret History of the Mongols,” a 13th-century chronicle. Through a combination of diplomacy, warfare, and intimidation, Genghis gradually expanded his influence over various tribes like the Tartars, Kereyids, Naimans, and Merkids. In 1206, during a significant gathering of tribal leaders known as a kurultai, Genghis Khan was officially recognized as the Great Khan or ‘universal ruler’ of the Mongols.
To further consolidate his rule, Genghis Khan promoted the adoption of a written Mongol language using the Uighur Turks’ script and implemented a lasting legal code called the Yasa. Communication within the empire was facilitated by the establishment of the Yam, a network of relay stations for messengers to restock supplies while traveling across the state. This marked the beginning of the Mongol Empire’s expansion into a much larger territory.
Expansion: Northern China & Persia
The text discusses the growth of territories in Northern China and Persia.Mongol tribal leaders traditionally maintained power by distributing war spoils among loyal followers, a practice Genghis Khan also followed. The Mongol army consisted of a core group of 10,000 elite soldiers known as kesikten, who held key administrative roles in the empire. Additional troops were recruited through conscription from Mongol tribes and allies. The main offensive weapon was the skilled light cavalry armed with the powerful Mongol composite bow. Mongol horses were valued for their durability, stamina, and abundance, allowing riders to have up to 16 spare mounts for long-distance travel at high speeds.
After becoming Great Khan, Genghis Khan targeted the Jin state in northern China, using the speed of his cavalry and terror tactics to force the Jin state into retreat. He also conquered the Tangut state of Xi Xia and made advances into the Song Dynasty in China. Despite sacking cities, the Song Dynasty proved more resilient. Genghis later targeted northern Korea and western Asia, attacking the Persian Khwarazm Empire with a large army that captured significant cities. The Mongols also defeated a Russian army and encircled the Caspian Sea before returning home. Genghis Khan’s ruthless tactics earned him the title of the ‘Accursed One’ among Muslims in the region. His conquests transformed the Asian world within two decades. Genghis Khan passed away in 1227 from an unknown illness, but his successors continued the Mongol empire’s dominance.
Ogedei Khan launches an invasion on Europe
Genghis Khan had divided his empire among his four sons – Jochi, Chagatai, Tolui, and Ogedei. Ogedei succeeded him as the Great Khan and ruled over all Mongols from 1229 to 1241. During his reign, Ogedei strengthened the Mongol state by appointing regional governors, implementing a census and tax system, and improving infrastructure like the Yam network and trade route security.
Ogedei continued conquests started by his father, particularly against the Jin dynasty with the help of Subutai. The Jin capital fell in 1233, leading to the collapse of the Jin state. Subutai also led successful campaigns in Central Asia and Eastern Europe, capturing cities like Tiflis and Kiev. The Mongol army’s swift and brutal attacks earned them the reputation of being fearsome warriors.
After Ogedei’s death in 1241, Europe was spared further Mongol invasions as the leaders returned to Karakorum to elect a new khan. Successive khans like Guyuk and Mongke ruled with regents in between, but it was Kublai Khan who expanded Mongol conquests significantly.
Kublai Khan launches military campaigns against China and Japan
Kublai Khan ruled from 1260 to 1294 and had already gained recognition for his military campaigns alongside Mongke Khan against Song China. He faced a power struggle with his younger brother Ariq Boke for the title of Great Khan, which he ultimately won. Despite the empire being divided into four khanates, Kublai’s territory remained the wealthiest. Kublai’s ambition led him to seek the title of Chinese emperor, leading to successful sieges against the Song Dynasty using advanced catapults acquired from Western Asia. By 1276, the Song Dynasty fell after the capture of Lin’an, followed by a decisive naval victory in 1279 near modern-day Macao.
In 1271, Kublai proclaimed himself the emperor of China, establishing the Yuan Dynasty with Beijing as the new capital and Xanadu as his summer residence. Kublai proved to be an efficient administrator, dividing his vast empire into 12 provinces, promoting trade through favorable taxation policies for merchants, introducing paper money, and enhancing transportation networks. Despite facing setbacks in failed attempts to invade Japan and mixed outcomes in Southeast Asia, Kublai’s reign marked the peak of the Mongol Empire before entering a period of decline in the 13th century.During the decline of the Khanates, internal conflicts and external invasions weakened their power.
While the Great Khans were focused on the eastern region of the Mongol Empire, the central and western areas operated independently. The Golden Horde, led by Batu Khan, was established around 1227 in the western Eurasian steppe. It lasted until 1480 but faced challenges from the Russians and Lithuanians from the mid-14th century onwards. The Ilkhanate, centered in Persia and founded by Hulegu, struggled against the Mamluk Sultanate and eventually fell apart due to internal conflicts in 1335. The Chagatai Khanate, founded by Chagatai, Genghis Khan’s son, maintained strong nomadic traditions but collapsed in 1363 due to family disputes.
The three western khanates frequently clashed over border issues and eventually adopted Islam as their official religion, causing further tensions among their ruling classes. Timur (Tamerlane) later took control of the Ilkhanate and Chagatai Khanate territories, establishing the Timurid Empire. Yuan China also faced internal strife, leading to the Ming Dynasty taking power in 1368. Ultimately, the Mongols assimilated into the settled societies they once conquered, leaving them vulnerable to new ideas and technologies that led to their eventual downfall.The impact of the Mongol Empire continues to influence Eurasian history and culture.
Legacy
The Mongols did not leave behind significant art or architectural structures, but their most enduring legacy was their role in connecting the East and West. Their vast empire, which spanned a large portion of the globe, brought together people from different cultures who had previously been unaware of each other’s existence. This interaction led to the exchange of ideas, technologies, and religions. For example, innovations such as gunpowder, paper, printing, and the compass were introduced to Europe through these connections.
The Mongols also influenced cuisine, with dishes like sulen (shulen) becoming popular across Asia. However, there were also negative consequences, such as the spread of the Black Death from China to Europe. Despite this, the Mongol Empire is remembered as a golden era in Mongolia, where Genghis Khan is still revered with ceremonies in Ulaanbaatar.
