In ancient times, Palestine was a part of the region known as Canaan, where the Kingdoms of Israel and Judah were situated. Originally, the term ‘Palestine’ referred to a specific area in southern Canaan that was occupied by the Philistines, a small group of people.
Various groups such as the Canaanites, Canaanite-Phoenicians, and Israelites had settled in the region long before the arrival of the Philistines. The Philistines are believed to have arrived in the area around 1276 BCE, establishing themselves in the southern coastal plain of the Mediterranean Sea, which later became known as Philistia.
The entire region was initially called ‘Canaan’ in Mesopotamian texts and trade records dating back to the 18th century BCE. The term ‘Palestine’ did not appear in written records until the 5th century BCE in Herodotus’ Histories. Following Herodotus’ usage, ‘Palestine’ gradually replaced ‘Canaan’ as the name for the entire region.
Human habitation in the fertile crescent region, including Palestine, dates back to before 10,000 BCE. Initially inhabited by nomadic hunter-gatherers, the population transitioned to sedentary agriculturalists by the Early Bronze Age (c.3300-c.2000 BCE). Trade expanded during the Middle Bronze Age (c.2000-c.1550 BCE), leading to prosperity in Canaan. In the Late Bronze Age (c.1550-c.1200 BCE), the region became part of the Egyptian Empire.
As Egypt’s influence declined, the Assyrians began to exert power in the region from around 1295 BCE. The Bronze Age Collapse (c.1250-c.1150 BCE) affected Canaan, with invasions and destruction occurring. According to the biblical Book of Joshua, the Israelites under Joshua’s leadership conquered the land around the same time as the arrival of the Sea Peoples, who may have contributed to the destruction of towns and cities in the region.
The region known as Judea, which was previously conquered by Assyrians, Babylonians, Persians, and Alexander the Great’s armies, was eventually taken over by the Romans. After the Roman conquest, the area was referred to as Judea, Palestine, or Syria-Palaestina following the Bar-Kochba Revolt in 132-136 CE. The name change by Emperor Hadrian was seen as a punishment for the Jewish people. Subsequently, the region was under Byzantine rule until it was conquered by Muslim armies from Arabia around 634 CE after the fall of the Western Roman Empire.
Terminology?
The term ‘Palestine’ is believed to have originated from either the word ‘plesheth’, which refers to a type of edible concoction carried by migratory tribes symbolizing nomadic peoples, or as a Greek term for the nomadic Philistines. Author Tom Robbins has proposed that ‘Palestine’ may have stemmed from the ancient androgynous deity Pales, worshipped in the Canaan region, suggesting that ‘Palestine’ translates to ‘Land of Pales’.
Although there was an androgynous deity named Pales recognized by the Romans as the patron god/goddess of shepherds and sheep, with festivals celebrated on specific dates in Rome, there is no direct evidence linking this deity to the name ‘Palestine’. The more likely origin of the name comes from the Greek term for ‘the Land of the Philistines’. Scholars J Maxwell Miller and John H. Hayes support this theory, explaining that the term ‘Palestine’ ultimately derives from ‘Philistia’, the region where the Philistines settled along the southern coastal plain of the Eastern Mediterranean seaboard.
Over time, the term ‘Palestine’ gained popularity and gradually replaced ‘Canaan’ as the commonly used name for the region, following its adoption by various writers after Herodotus’ use of the term in the 5th century BCE.
Origins of Civilization
Palestine is one of the earliest known inhabited regions globally, with archaeological findings indicating a hunter-gatherer community living there before 10,000 BCE. In the Early Bronze Age, permanent settlements were established, leading to the development of agricultural communities. The strategic location of Palestine between Mesopotamia, Arabia, and Egypt made it a significant trading center, attracting the attention of Sargon the Great, who incorporated the region into his Akkadian Empire around 2300 BCE.
During the Akkadian Empire’s peak, urban centers thrived in Palestine until its decline due to invasions by the Gutians, Elamites, and Amorites around 2083 BCE. Subsequently, the cities were deserted, and the population reverted to a rural, farming lifestyle, possibly due to factors like overpopulation, though the exact reasons remain unclear.
Period in the Middle Bronze Age
During the Middle Bronze Age (around 2000-1550 BCE), urbanization was embraced by the people leading to a flourishing trade environment. Trade relations between Byblos and Egypt, established around 4000 BCE, continued to grow with Egypt becoming the dominant trading partner by 2000 BCE. The influence of Egypt can be seen in the burial customs of the region, which closely resembled those of Egypt in terms of the items placed in tombs.
This partnership benefited both Egypt and Palestine until the arrival of the Hyksos, a Semitic group, around 1725 BCE. The Hyksos used Palestine as a strategic location to establish themselves in Lower Egypt’s Delta region towards the end of Egypt’s Middle Kingdom (2040-1782 BCE). They eventually gained enough power to engage in trade, raise armies, and control a significant portion of Lower Egypt until they were expelled by Ahmose I of Thebes in 1570 BCE. Ahmose I pursued the Hyksos through Palestine into Syria, causing destruction along the way.
In 722 BCE, the region was conquered by the Assyrians, leading to the complete subjugation of the Philistines and the loss of their autonomy.
The period of time towards the end of the Bronze Age
After the Hyksos were expelled, Ahmose I incorporated Palestine into the Egyptian Empire during the New Kingdom (circa 1570-1069 BCE) to prevent further foreign invasions. He established a buffer-zone around Egypt’s borders, which later pharaohs expanded to create their empire.
Prominent pharaohs like Hatshepsut, Thutmose III, Amenhotep III, and Ramesses the Great ruled during the New Kingdom and supported trade and infrastructure development in Palestine.
During Thutmose III’s reign, the Habiru, a group causing disturbances through raids, emerged. Their origin remains unknown, and attempts to link them with the Hebrews have been debunked.
The Sea Peoples appeared during Ramesses the Great’s rule, engaging in conflicts with Egypt and other regions. Their identity and origins are still debated, as they continued to pose threats during the reigns of Merenptah and Ramesses III. Their actions, along with Assyrian incursions, led to turmoil in the Near East region from around 1300 BCE.Around 1250-1200 BCE, it is believed that the Israelite general Joshua led the conquest of Canaan, as described in the biblical Book of Joshua and partially in the Book of Numbers. While there are signs of significant turmoil in the region during this period, archaeological findings do not align with the biblical accounts, suggesting that the Sea Peoples may have been responsible for the upheaval.
The earliest reference to Israel is found on the Merenptah Stele, where it is mentioned as a people who suffered defeat alongside the Libyans, allies of the Sea Peoples. This inscription implies that Israel was a group rather than a centralized kingdom or city-state, raising the possibility that they collaborated with the Sea Peoples and Libyans against Egypt.
Following the events attributed to Joshua’s invasion, the Israelites eventually settled in Palestine, establishing the Kingdom of Israel around 1080 BCE in the northern region. The kingdom thrived until King Solomon’s death (c. 965-931 BCE), after which it split into the Kingdom of Israel based in Samaria and the Kingdom of Judah centered in Jerusalem. Throughout the rule of early Israelite monarchs and beyond, the Bible frequently mentions the Philistines as their adversaries.The Philistines and foreign invaders.The Philistines, believed to have originated from Crete or the Aegean region, arrived on the southern coast of Canaan around 1276 BCE after being defeated in their attempt to invade Egypt by Rameses III. By approximately 1185 BCE, they had settled in the coastal region known as Philistia, where they quickly established themselves among existing settlements.
According to biblical accounts, the organized and efficient Philistines posed a significant threat to early Israelite tribes and cities, causing trouble for King Saul and later facing defeat by King David. Despite Israelite victories, the Philistines continued to thrive along the coast and remained a nuisance to their neighbors during the reign of King Solomon.
In 722 BCE, the Assyrians conquered the region, leading to the destruction of the Kingdom of Israel and the complete subjugation of the Philistines. The Neo-Assyrian Empire, under King Sennacherib, further asserted control over the area in 703 BCE, making Judah a vassal state.
Following the fall of the Assyrian Empire in 612 BCE, Babylonians and Medes formed a coalition that invaded the region, leading to the sacking of Jerusalem in 598 BCE and the Babylonian Captivity of the Israelites. The Philistines were scattered during this period as well.
Cyrus the Great incorporated the region into the Achaemenid Empire after the fall of Babylon, allowing the Jews to return to their homeland. Subsequently, Alexander the Great’s conquest led to Seleucid control until the Maccabean revolt in c. 168 BCE, establishing the Hasmonean Dynasty. Rome intervened in the region in 63 BCE, eventually turning Palestine into the Roman province of Judea around 31 BCE under Emperor Augustus.
The conflicts between the Jewish people and the Roman Empire
The Romans appointed Herod the Great as king of Judea and imposed taxes on the region similar to those in other provinces. The people of Judea were unhappy with Roman rule, leading to ongoing issues for Rome.
The period from 66-73 CE saw the First Jewish-Roman war, resulting in the destruction of Jerusalem by Titus, including the Second Temple. The defenders of Masada also faced martyrdom during this time. Despite some freedom to practice their own cultures and religions, the people of Judea desired independence from Roman control.
The Kitos War occurred from 115-117 CE, ending in a Roman victory and restoring relative peace. However, the Bar-Kochba Revolt in 132 CE was the most devastating conflict, resulting in significant casualties on both sides. Emperor Hadrian’s response was to rename the province Syria Palaestina and expel all Jews, establishing Aelia Capitolina on the ruins of Jerusalem. This revolt marked the end of the Jewish-Roman Wars, with Rome maintaining control over the region thereafter.
In conclusion
Emperor Diocletian divided the Roman Empire into the Western Empire, which governed Europe, and the Eastern Empire (later known as the Byzantine Empire), which oversaw affairs in the Near East including Syria-Palaestina. When Emperor Constantine the Great made Christianity the state religion, Syria-Palaestina became a Christian province.
After the fall of the Western Roman Empire in 476 CE, the Byzantine Empire continued unchallenged until the rise of Islam in the 7th century CE. In 634 CE, Muslim armies from Arabia took control of Syria-Palaestina and renamed it Jund Filastin. The region saw a transition of religious sites from churches to mosques.
European Christians referred to Palestine as the Holy Land, leading to the First Crusade in 1096 CE to reclaim it from Muslim rule. Despite subsequent efforts supported by the Byzantine Empire, lasting until 1272 CE, no significant gains were made. The Byzantine Empire fell in 1453 CE, diminishing Christian influence in the region, and Palestine came under Ottoman Turkish rule.
Throughout the following centuries, Palestine remained a contested region until British involvement during World War I in 1915 CE, when plans were made to partition the Middle East for western interests. After World War II, the United Nations declared the establishment of the State of Israel as a homeland for the Jewish people, a decision that remains contentious and contributes to ongoing conflicts in the region today.
