Philip II of Macedon, who ruled from 382 to 336 BCE, dramatically transformed Macedonia from a minor, insignificant state into the dominant military and political power in the Greek world. This newfound strength inevitably brought Philip into conflict with Thebes, which had previously held sway as the leading power in Greece. The decisive Macedonian victory at the Battle of Chaeronea in 338 BCE shattered Theban dominance and resulted in the occupation of Thebes by Macedonian troops.
However, Philip did not live long enough to enjoy the full benefits of his conquests, as he was assassinated in 336 BCE. Following his death, Macedon’s subjugated states seized the chance to rebel, forcing his successor, Alexander the Great, to embark on a rigorous campaign to quell these uprisings. As tensions escalated, the stage was set for the Battle of Thebes, with hopes high among the rebels to expel the hated Macedonians.
The Balkan Revolt
Marble head of Demosthenes, Roman, 2nd Century CE, Source: The Metropolitan Museum of Art; Achaemenid golden coin, c.4th Century BCE 
Tomb of Philip II of Macedon at Vergina, Macedonian 4th Century BCE, Source: Greek Reporter; with Silver phiale depicting Heracles and Auge, Thracian 5th-4th Century BCE 
Frieze depicting marching hoplites, Greek, c.390 BCE, Source: The British Museum; with Portrait bust of Demosthenes, Roman 50 BCE-100 CE
News of Philip’s assassination sparked a wave of rebellions among Macedon’s former vassals and allies. During his reign, Philip had expanded Macedonian influence over Greece and much of the Balkans through relentless military campaigns. His death presented an opportunity for many city-states, tribes, and kingdoms to attempt to regain their independence.
Compounding the Macedonians’ problems, Philip had already deployed a substantial force to Anatolia under the command of some of his most experienced generals. Alexander, undeterred by these challenges, immediately took action. Leading a select force of 3,000 cavalrymen, he advanced south through Thessaly and Greece, reaching as far as Corinth. This display of military strength quickly subdued the Greek resistance, compelling them to rejoin the Macedonian sphere of influence.
The northern situation was even more perilous. Traditional enemies of Macedon, the Thracian and Illyrian tribes, saw Philip’s death as a chance to invade. These northern territories were vital for Macedon, both as a source of wealth and manpower and for the kingdom’s security. Thus, in the spring of 335 BCE, Alexander marched his army north into the Balkans.
The Challenges and Triumphs of Alexander
Despite difficult fighting, Alexander led the Macedonians to a series of victories. However, news of his success was slow to reach the southern Greeks, and when it did, it was distorted. They mistakenly believed that Alexander had died from wounds sustained at the siege of Pelium. This false information ignited the spark that would lead to the Battle of Thebes.
Demosthenes of Athens (384-322 BCE), a passionate opponent of both Philip and Alexander, played a crucial role in stirring resistance against Macedon. A gifted orator and statesman, Demosthenes sought to replace Macedonian dominance with Athenian hegemony. He brought before the Athenian assembly a man who claimed to have witnessed Alexander’s death at Pelium, further fueling anti-Macedonian sentiment.
King Darius III of Persia also played a part in these machinations, providing substantial financial support to Greek states willing to oppose the Macedonians. This Persian intervention was enough to persuade a group of Theban exiles in Athens to return home and instigate a revolt against the Macedonian garrison in their city.
The Thebans, bolstered by Persian funds, were well-equipped for their uprising. War, being an expensive endeavor, required significant resources, and Demosthenes received a considerable payment from the Persians. Instead of keeping it for himself, he used the money to purchase weapons and supplies for the Thebans. Additionally, Demosthenes leveraged his political influence to persuade Athens to form a defensive alliance with Thebes against the Macedonians.
It’s important to note that Athens, Thebes, and Persia were typically rivals rather than allies. Their cooperation in this instance was driven not by newfound friendship but by a strategic calculation that they could use each other to combat their common enemy, the Macedonians.
Thebes Revolts Against Macedon
The Thebans, emboldened by newfound support, declared their independence and killed two Macedonian officers who were in the city. However, their attempt to completely expel the Macedonian garrison from the Cadmaea, the citadel at the heart of Thebes, failed. Unable to capture the Cadmaea, the Thebans set up a blockade around it.
This rebellion against Macedonian rule sparked similar sentiments across Greece. Several other cities renounced their allegiance to Macedon. In Athens, Demosthenes continued his campaign against Macedon, advocating for more weapons and supplies to be sent to the Thebans. However, the Athenians chose not to commit troops to Thebes, preferring to wait and see how events unfolded. The Spartans, traditionally hostile to Macedon, mobilized their army and encamped at the Isthmus of Corinth but did not venture beyond the Peloponnese.
Despite their animosity towards Macedonian domination, none of the Greek city-states were willing to fully support Thebes. The Thebans had not yet succeeded in reclaiming their city entirely from the Macedonians, leading to a mixed start for the revolt. There was still hope, however, as more city-states seemed poised to support Thebes. Additionally, the Macedonian garrison in the Cadmaea was unprepared for a siege and might soon be forced to surrender. If this happened, support from Athens and Sparta was expected to increase.
Alexander’s Response
Alexander, who was very much alive, became deeply concerned upon hearing of the revolt in Thebes. At the start of his reign, he had secured Greek submission through military might. Now, there was no significant Macedonian force in Greece, and there was a real danger that more Greek city-states would join the Theban cause. With his usual decisiveness, Alexander quickly marched south with his army, knowing that speed was critical to containing the situation.
The Macedonian army moved at an incredible pace. After just seven days of marching, they reached Thessaly and soon after, they were outside Thebes. Covering over 300 miles in less than two weeks was a remarkable feat for armies of that era. They moved so swiftly that they passed through the pass at Thermopylae undetected.
At first, the Thebans refused to believe that it was Alexander leading the army, suspecting it might be the Macedonian general Antipater with a smaller force. However, it soon became clear that Alexander himself had arrived. This realization caused many smaller city-states to abandon Thebes and pledge allegiance to Alexander.
The Siege of Thebes
Alexander offered the Thebans surprisingly lenient terms given the situation; he only demanded the surrender of the two leaders of the revolt. However, the Theban council, even though they were abandoned by their allies, voted enthusiastically for war. They demanded that Alexander hand over two of his generals. The Macedonian garrison remained fortified in the Cadmaea, surrounded by Theban siege works. The Thebans had also fortified the exterior of the city with a palisade, making any attack challenging. Alexander did not rush into an assault; instead, he allowed his troops three days to rest and recover from their rapid march.
To prepare for the impending Macedonian attack, the Thebans armed their slaves and placed them alongside their infantry and cavalry within the palisades. Women and children were stationed on the walls and in temples to bolster the defense.
Alexander divided his army into three columns for the assault. The first column attacked the palisades but lost momentum after breaking through. The second column relieved them, pushing through and driving the Thebans back into the city before facing a brief repulse. At this critical moment, Alexander deployed the rest of his troops. As the Thebans retreated, the Macedonian garrison emerged from the Cadmaea, effectively ending organized Theban resistance.
More Affairs:
Thebes Laid Waste
With Thebes now under his control, Alexander showed no mercy. His troops, particularly the allied Greeks, relentlessly hunted down and killed Thebans. Attempts to surrender were disregarded, and no distinction was made between combatants and non-combatants; women and children were also slaughtered. The extent of the massacre horrified even contemporary Greeks. After satisfying their bloodlust, the Macedonian soldiers turned their attention to the city’s destruction and the fate of its surviving inhabitants. Alexander intended to send a stark message to the rest of Greece, deterring any future uprisings.
All surviving Thebans—men, women, and children—were enslaved. Approximately 6,000 were killed in the fighting and subsequent massacre, and an estimated 30,000 were enslaved. Only priests, priestesses, and those who had been guest friends of Philip and Alexander were spared. Thebes’ rich territory was divided and distributed among Macedon’s Greek allies.
Every building in the city was destroyed, except for a few. Temples were spared out of piety or superstition, and the Cadmaea, due to its strategic importance, remained intact. Alexander personally spared the house of the renowned poet Pindar, showing a rare moment of clemency.
Aftermath
The sudden revolt, swift fall, and complete destruction of Thebes reverberated throughout the Greek world. Cities that had shown support for Thebes or had considered rebellion swiftly moved to reconcile with Alexander, offering their allegiance. Many cities even executed leaders of anti-Macedonian factions within their own walls to avoid sharing Thebes’ fate.
The only unresolved issue for Alexander was Athens and Demosthenes. Initially, Alexander demanded the surrender of Demosthenes and his supporters for punishment. However, the Athenians, despite the risk, were reluctant to comply. Eventually, Alexander was persuaded to accept more lenient terms, only insisting on the exile of one Athenian ringleader. Demosthenes would go on to outlive Alexander.
Long-Term Impact
Alexander’s brutal suppression of Thebes ensured compliance and instilled fear among the Greeks but did not win their affection or support. Nevertheless, it effectively deterred most city-states from contemplating rebellion as Alexander began his extensive campaign against the Achaemenid Empire. With no immediate threats to his rear or concerns over his supply lines and communications with Macedon, Alexander could fully concentrate on his conquests.
Thebes never fully recovered from its destruction. The city was re-founded in 315 BCE with the aid of other Greek city-states, including Athens, which helped rebuild its walls, but it never regained its former glory or influence.
