Amidst the expansive Thracian plain and along the Aegean coast, a formidable stronghold stood proudly. It was from the high parapets of this fortress that Xerxes, the 38-year-old Persian “King of Kings” who reigned from 485-465 BC, surveyed an awe-inspiring sight. Below him on the plain, an immense gathering of humanity had assembled, representing 46 different peoples.
The Diverse Forces of Xerxes
The scene was a vivid tapestry of cultures and warriors. Assyrians with blue-black beards stood in rows, adorned in brass helmets and linen cuirasses, wielding iron knotted clubs, lances, and daggers. Nearby, Bactrian archers held cane bows, while squat Scythians in trousers and pointed hats brandished deadly composite bows and “sagaris” battle-axes. Indian charioteers dressed in cotton, Caspians in goatskin, and Colchians behind cow skin shields added to the diversity. Saragian horsemen carried lassos, and Thracians in bright attire wore fox skin caps. Arabian archers on camels wore long robes called “zeira,” while the wildest of all were the Ethiopians. They wore headdresses of horses’ scalps, ears, and manes over their straight black hair, or had curly hair if they were from western Ethiopia. Draped in leopard and lion skins, they carried reed arrows with stone tips, six-foot bows from palm leaves, and spearheads of antelope horn.
The core of Xerxes’ army comprised Persian, Mede, and Kissian infantry and cavalry. These troops, led by officers and nobles glittering with golden adornments, were accompanied by concubines, servants, and beasts of burden. Xerxes’ elite troops, known as the “Immortals,” always numbered 10,000, with their ranks quickly replenished if any perished, distinguished by garlands around their heads.
Beyond the plain and the stronghold, Xerxes could see a coastline stretching past Sale, the city of the Samothracians, to the Serrheum promontory. Along this beach lay his massive fleet, consisting of Egyptian, Phoenician, Cypriot, Cilician, Pamphylian, Lycian, Carian, and subject Greek ships. These vessels, which always accompanied his land forces, included both warships and smaller ships, manned by crews of 80 to 200 men, each as varied as the land army. Some ships were pulled ashore for refitting.
The Greatest Army Ever Assembled
According to Herodotus, Xerxes commanded an astonishing force: 1,700,000 infantry, 80,000 cavalry, and a total host of over five million, including ship crews, servants, and camp followers, supported by 1,207 warships and 3,000 smaller vessels. While modern estimates are more conservative, suggesting over 150,000 soldiers and marines and around 800 triremes, it was still the largest military and political force the ancient world had seen. The army took four years to assemble, with every nation and tribe from the vast Persian Empire required to send warriors led by their own leaders.
Those who did not submit to Xerxes’ will faced dire consequences. In the autumn of 481 BC, Pythius, the richest man in the Persian Empire, hosted Xerxes and his army. Pleased, Xerxes gave Pythius 7,000 darics to make his wealth a full four million. However, when Pythius asked for his eldest son to be spared from the war, Xerxes, enraged by what he saw as insolence, ordered the young man cut in two, displaying the pieces on either side of the gate of Sardis as a warning to others.
Xerxes’ wrath extended even to the elements. A storm destroyed two massive bridges built by his Egyptian and Phoenician engineers across the Hellespont. Furious, Xerxes had the engineers executed and ordered the Hellespont itself to be lashed 300 times, declaring, “O bitter water, our lord lays this punishment upon you, for having done him wrong, who never did wrong to you. King Xerxes will cross you, whether you will or not.” Under the supervision of a Greek engineer, new bridges were built using over 300 ships, creating a road of brushwood, wood, and earth, with palisades on the sides. Xerxes watched from an ivory throne as his army crossed from Asia Minor into Greece.
A local man, witnessing this immense force, reportedly exclaimed, “Why, O Zeus, do you, in the likeness of a Persian man, and with the name of Xerxes instead of your own, lead the whole race of mankind to the destruction of Greece?” This invasion was partly motivated by the desire to avenge the defeat of Xerxes’ father, King Darius, at the Battle of Marathon. Despite initial hesitation, Xerxes was convinced by his cousin Mardonius to seek revenge and expand Persian rule into Greece.
Xerxes, a devout Zoroastrian, was also driven by a series of visions, one of which depicted him crowned with an olive branch whose boughs spread across the earth before vanishing. This dream suggested that while Xerxes might achieve great victories, they would ultimately be short-lived. Whether these visions were real or a product of Herodotus’ storytelling, they highlight the superstitions and beliefs that influenced Xerxes’ decision to wage war on Greece.
Xerxes and His Divine Mandate
Xerxes firmly believed that it was his divine destiny to conquer the world. Inscriptions at Persepolis boldly proclaimed: “A great god is Ahuramazda, who created this earth, who created man, who created peace for man; who made Xerxes king, one king of many, one lord of many.” Another inscription asserted, “All I did, I did with the will of Ahuramazda.”
Xerxes wasn’t alone in seeking supernatural guidance. At the temple of Apollo in Delphi, the Pythia, the priestess of Greece’s most famous oracle, would sit upon a tripod near a sacred laurel tree, chewing its leaves to enter a trance. Her cryptic prophecies, recorded by priests, were eagerly awaited. When a Spartan delegation sought her counsel, she warned:
“Oh! Ye men who dwell in the streets of broad Lacedaemon,
Either your glorious town shall be sacked by the Children of Perseus
Or, in exchange, must all through the whole Laconian country
Mourn for the loss of a king, descendant of great Heracles.
He cannot be withstood by the courage of bulls or lions,
Strive as they may; he is mighty as Zeus; there is naught that shall stay him,
Till he have got for his prey your king, or your glorious city.”
The Seeds of Panhellenism
Sparta, also known as Lacedaemon, and Athens were the only Greek city-states that refused Persian demands for submission, signified by the tokens of earth and water. The Greeks, disdainful of Persian rule, began to unite against the common threat. The idea of Panhellenism, a sense of Greek unity, first took root during the previous Persian invasion and blossomed into the Synedrion of Probuloi, or Congress of Representatives, at the Isthmus of Corinth in 481 BC. Under Sparta’s leadership, 31 city-states put aside their rivalries to form a unified strategy against Persia.
Sparta, already leading many Peloponnesian cities, presided over the congress and was entrusted with command of both the army and navy, despite initial resistance from Athens. While Athens, with its powerful navy, naturally sought naval command, they ultimately ceded this role to maintain unity. The Spartan king Leonidas, a descendant of Heracles, was chosen to lead the army, while Eurybiadas, not of royal blood, commanded the navy.
Not all Greek states joined the confederation. Argos, Crete, Corcyra, Syracuse, and the wild northeastern region of Thessaly abstained. Thessaly, located on Xerxes’ invasion path from Thrace through Macedon, found itself vulnerable without southern Greek support and chose not to openly resist the Persian advance.
The Greek Strategy
Realizing their slim chances in a direct land battle against the larger Persian forces, the Greeks devised a strategic plan. They aimed to use their superior navy to force a decisive sea battle. A select force of hoplites would hold the pass at Thermopylae to delay the Persian land advance, while the Greek navy, positioned in the Euboean channel, would block Persian naval movements.
Athens, fearing a Persian advance into central Greece, pushed for this strategy, while Sparta preferred to defend the Isthmus of Corinth. Reluctantly, Sparta agreed to the Thermopylae defense but committed only 300 of its elite “Spartiatai” hoplites, accompanied by 900 lighter-armed helot hoplites. The Spartiatai, the military ruling class, were vastly outnumbered by the helots, indigenous farmer-serfs who often threatened revolt, limiting Sparta’s ability to fully mobilize.
Leonidas mustered additional forces from Arcadia, Corinth, Phleious, and Mykenai, totaling about 4,000 hoplites. He marched to Thermopylae, gathering 700 Thespians, 1,000 Phocians, 400 Thebans, and some Locrians, ultimately commanding around 7,000 troops. The Athenians, guided by a Delphic prophecy to seek safety “behind the wooden wall,” interpreted this as a directive to focus their efforts on their navy.
Thermopylae, meaning “gates of heat” due to its hot sulfur springs, was a narrow coastal pass along Mount Kallidromus. Leonidas fortified the ruins of a Phocian wall and prepared to defend the pass. A steep trail called Anopaea provided the only alternative route, which 1,000 Phocians guarded. Leonidas launched a night raid into the Malian plain, destroying supplies to hinder the advancing Persians.
Meanwhile, the Greek navy, comprising 271 triremes and nine penteconters, positioned near Artemisium on Euboea Island. An additional 53 ships patrolled the southern tip of Euboea to prevent Persian outflanking maneuvers.
In mid-August, the Persian army reached the Malian valley. The Persian fleet, sailing down Thessaly’s coast, destroyed two out of three Greek reconnaissance ships. However, a storm struck, destroying many Persian ships and delaying their advance. For three days, the storm raged, seemingly appeased only by sacrifices from Xerxes’ mystic Magians on the fourth day.
Thus, the stage was set for one of the most famous stands in history, with the Greeks prepared to defend their homeland against the might of Xerxes’ army.
The Divine Intervention: Poseidon and Boreas
When Euboean scouts brought news of the Persian fleet’s misfortune, the Euboeans celebrated, hailing the sea god Poseidon as their savior and offering libations in his honor. The Athenians, meanwhile, believed it was Boreas, the God of the North Wind, who had come to their aid. This stroke of luck significantly boosted the morale of the Greek navy. Initially daunted by the overwhelming power of the Persian fleet and the loss of their reconnaissance ships, many Greeks had been on the verge of retreating.
Despite their storm losses, the Persian fleet still outnumbered the Greeks. The Persians probed further around the northern tip of Euboea, deploying at Aphetae on the opposite shore. Two hundred Phoenician ships were sent along Euboea’s coast to trap the Greek fleet in the Malian Gulf. Urged by Themistocles, the Greek fleet engaged the Persians on the afternoon of August 18. The Greeks initially sank several Persian ships that had ventured out from their harbors piecemeal. As more Persian ships arrived, threatening to encircle them, the Greeks fought back from a defensive formation known as a kuklos, with their ships’ bows facing outward and sterns inward like the spokes of a wheel. Darkness eventually forced the Greeks to withdraw, having captured 30 Persian ships.
Meanwhile, Leonidas took up his position at the repaired Phocian wall. Below, on the Malian plain, the Persian multitude awaited. Xerxes knew that despite the small number of Greeks, capturing the narrow pass would not be easy. He hoped the sheer sight of his mighty host would demoralize the Greeks into retreating.
Many Greeks, awed by Xerxes’ vast army, called for a retreat to the isthmus. This proposal angered the Locrians and Phocians, who had committed every available fighting man and would be left defenseless without the Peloponnesians. Moved by their plight, Leonidas decided to hold the pass and sent envoys for reinforcements.
Curious about the Greeks’ intentions, Xerxes sent a scout up the pass. The scout observed Spartans performing gymnastics and combing their long, oily hair, seemingly oblivious to his presence. Reporting back, the scout’s account amused Xerxes, who laughed at the Greeks’ strange behavior. Demaratus, a dethroned Spartan king now allied with the Persians, explained to Xerxes that the Spartans adorned themselves with care when facing death. He warned that if Xerxes could defeat these men, no other nation would dare resist him.
Xerxes was puzzled by the Spartans’ refusal to flee. For four days, the Greeks held their ground. The Spartans, a unique martial society even among the warlike Greeks, were conditioned from birth for hardship and combat. Only the fit were allowed to live, while the weak were left to die. Spartan boys, taken from their mothers at seven, were raised by the state, trained in constant drills, athletics, and combat. Devoid of comforts, they were even encouraged to steal, punished only if caught. Spartans existed solely for the state, dedicated to crushing its enemies and subjugating the conquered as helots.
As his army consumed their provisions, Xerxes found supplies dwindling due to the prior raids by Leonidas and the loss of many supply ships to the storm. The remaining supply ships were blocked by the Greek navy. With his army dependent on constant movement and pillaging, Xerxes’ patience wore thin. On August 18, the same day as the naval battle at Aphetae, he decided to teach the stubborn Spartans a harsh lesson.
Thus, Xerxes prepared to unleash the full might of his forces on the defenders of Thermopylae, unaware that he was about to face one of the most legendary stands in military history.
More Affairs:
Xerxes Commands His First Assault Against the Spartans
For his initial assault, Xerxes selected the Medes and Kissians from central Persia. Likely, Xerxes had little regard for the Medes due to their past dominion over the Persians and thus did not mind if they suffered heavy losses. Foolishly, he commanded them to capture the Spartan defenders alive.
Leading the column was Tigranes the Achaemenid with the Medes at the front and the Kissians bringing up the rear. As they advanced, the pass grew narrower, with the Malian Gulf’s sparkling blue waters on their left and Mount Kallidromus’s towering slopes on their right. The scorching Greek summer had left the ground parched and cracked, making the march arduous.
Tigranes and his men paused at the sight ahead—a solid wall of bronze, glowing fiery red in the sun, bristling with enormous spears. The Spartans, clad in polished bronze bell corselets (the thôrax) and bronze greaves, stood ready. Red cloaks draped over their shoulders, concealing any bloodstains. Their eyes, filled with unwavering determination, glared through the T-shaped slits of their Corinthian helmets, masterpieces of metalcraft beaten from a single sheet of bronze, featuring a leather lining for concussion protection and a proud horsehair crest.
Central to their defense was the hoplite shield, a massive, indispensable round shield made of oak and covered in bronze. Held by a handgrip and strapped to the left arm, these 20-pound shields protected the hoplite’s left side and their neighbor’s right. Emblazoned with the Greek letter for L, signifying Lacedaemon, these shields were enough to strike fear into many foes, though not the battle-hardened Medes.
Undeterred by Xerxes’ order to take the defenders alive, the Medes likely attempted to weaken the Spartan phalanx with missile fire. Eastern archers, firing from behind shields set into the ground, released volleys of arrows. However, most arrows thudded harmlessly against the Greek shields or were deflected by the thick bronze breastplates. The Medes, armed with short spears and inferior armor, hurled themselves at the Spartan line. Greek spear points pierced through their mail, shattered their wicker shields, and tore through their ranks. Even the best-equipped Persian troops, with their bronze or iron helmets and scale armor, could not match the Greeks’ superior protection. Many Medes had no body armor, only soft hats or cloth for sun protection.
Persian tactics, reliant on cavalry, archery, and individual fighting prowess, proved ineffective in the narrow pass of Thermopylae, perfectly suited for the Greeks’ hoplite phalanx. Greek soldiers fought as a cohesive unit, often in sworn bands of two dozen men who were not just comrades but often lovers, willing to die for each other. The bravest stood at the front, with several ranks of comrades behind, ensuring no one in the combat zone could flee. The Spartan poet Tyrtaeus captured their ethos: “Standing foot to foot, shield pressed on shield, crest to crest and helmet to helmet, chest to chest engage your man, grasping your sword hilt or long spear.”
In the chaos of battle, rows and files intermingled, but cohesion was maintained through the melodies of flutists. These high-pitched tones guided the soldiers even within their enclosed helmets. Lighter-armed helot servants aided their wounded masters and dispatched fallen enemies. Wounded hoplites who managed to stagger out of the fray were fortunate; those who fell in the chaos, weighed down by armor and trampled by friend or foe, faced imminent death from blood loss and shock.
Despite the intense physical strain of battle, the Spartans’ combat prowess remained remarkable. Encumbered by 50 to 70 pounds of armor and weapons, their feats were even more impressive given that the average hoplite stood just 5 feet 6 inches tall and weighed 140 pounds. They pushed their bodies to the limits, stabbing with spears, pushing with shields, and enduring the heat, noise, and weight of their gear.
Xerxes’ first assault on the Spartans revealed the formidable nature of the defenders. Despite the Persians’ numerical superiority and relentless attacks, the Spartans’ discipline, training, and unity held firm against the invaders, setting the stage for one of history’s most legendary stands.
The Elite Persian Immortals vs. the Spartans and Hoplites
During lulls in the fighting, the Greeks took advantage of every moment to rotate their troops, allowing the weary to rest and bringing in fresh soldiers. They fought in detachments organized by their city-states but always under Spartan command. The only Greek soldiers not actively fighting were the Phocians, who remained stationed at the Anopaea trail to guard against any flanking maneuvers.
The Medes persisted in their assault, trampling over the bodies of their fallen comrades, only to join them in death. After sustained and brutal fighting, the exhausted survivors retreated in defeat. The Kissians fared no better, with Herodotus making no mention of their impact in the battle.
With the failure of the initial assault, Xerxes ordered his elite Immortals, led by Hydarnes, to advance. Confident in their training and armor, the Immortals marched forward. Despite their reputation, they were no match for the hoplites in close combat. The Immortals likely bombarded the Spartans with arrows and javelins, causing the Greek line to seemingly break. With cries of panic, the hoplites appeared to flee, prompting the Immortals to pursue. However, this retreat was a ruse; the Greeks wheeled around in unison, cutting down the strung-out Persian pursuers with their spears.
By nightfall, the Greeks watched as even the Immortals retreated. Despite their victory, Greek casualties included many non-Spartans, who often wore only leather armor or Persian-style composite scale mail. The battlefield was littered with the bodies of Medes, Kissians, and Immortals, their colorful uniforms stained with blood. Xerxes, witnessing the carnage, sprang from his throne in agony three times.
As night fell, the Greeks tended to their wounds, ate, and rested, knowing the battle was far from over. A storm swept in, wrecking the 200 Phoenician ships attempting to encircle the Greek fleet. With dawn, Xerxes, undeterred, rallied fresh Persian troops with promises of lavish rewards and threats of severe punishment. These soldiers faced the grim sight of their fallen comrades and the formidable hoplites. Driven by overseers’ whips, the Persians were forced into battle, but like the previous day, they met with little success.
A Betrayal and a New Strategy
Desperation led Xerxes to consider alternative routes. A local Greek named Epialtes offered to guide the Persians along the Anopaea trail, bypassing the main defense. On the night before the full moon, which was linked to the Spartan Carnean festival, Hydarnes led the Immortals across the Asopus River and through Mount Kallidromus. Despite the tough climb, the Immortals, trained in mountain warfare, pressed on relentlessly.
At dawn, the Immortals reached a plateau, finding the Phocians asleep and unarmored, having failed to post guards. Hydarnes’ archers quickly scattered the panicked Phocians, who fled up the mountain, mistakenly thinking they were the main target. The Immortals, their morale boosted, continued along the trail, certain they were on the right path.
At Thermopylae, the seer Megistias foresaw death at dawn through his sacrificial rites. Scouts confirmed the presence of the Persians on the Anopaea. The Greeks held a council of war, deciding that the Spartans, Thebans, and Thespians would hold the pass while the other Greek forces retreated. Leonidas and his 300 Spartans, along with 900 helots, prepared to make their final stand, knowing their deaths were inevitable. The remaining 1,100 Thebans and Thespians would guard against the approaching Immortals.
The decision for Leonidas and the Spartans to stay was driven by their code of honor, which dictated they fulfill their duty to the end. With the strategic objective of holding the pass lost, Leonidas aimed to delay the Persians long enough for the other Greeks to escape. If they failed, the swift Persian cavalry would overtake and slaughter the fleeing Greeks. Leonidas may have even ordered the retreat to ensure the survival of his allies.
In the coming hours, Leonidas and his men would face one of history’s most legendary and heroic last stands, demonstrating the unyielding spirit and valor of the Spartan warriors.
“Have a Good Breakfast, Men, for Tonight We Dine in Hades”
Historians Bury and Meiggs suggest that the retreating Greeks might have initially planned to fall back to the eastern juncture of the path and the high trail, aiming to catch the Immortals from behind. However, if this was their plan, it ended in defeat.
As the sun rose on the third day of battle, Leonidas watched his loyal Spartan bodyguards prepare for the day’s fight. They ate their morning meal and combed their hair. He famously told them, “Have a good breakfast, men, for tonight we dine in Hades.” Donning their fierce Corinthian helmets and strapping on their great shields, the Spartans followed their king to the western narrows of Thermopylae for the final time.
In the valley below, Xerxes poured a libation to Ahuramazda and sent his soldiers up to the defile once more, hopeful that the Immortals would soon attack the rear of the Spartan defense.
As Leonidas observed the approaching enemy, the prophecy of Delphi echoed in his mind:
“Either your glorious town shall be sacked by the Children of Perseus
Or, in exchange, must all through the whole Laconian country
Mourn for the loss of a king, descendant of great Heracles.”
He realized that he was the king foretold to fall. But he and his warriors resolved to fight with unparalleled valor. Leonidas led his men out of the defile, charging directly at the enemy. The air filled with the clamor of crashing spears, the shredding of shields, and the cries of battle and the wounded. The Spartans fought fiercely, driving many Persians into the sea, where they drowned. As their spears shattered, the Spartans drew their short, inward-curved, cleaver-like blades, continuing their assault with relentless ferocity.
The Death of Leonidas
Two brothers of Xerxes fell that morning, and Leonidas himself perished after taking a bloody toll on his foes. The battle over his body was of Homeric proportions, with the two sides pushing each other back and forth four times. Finally, the Spartans recovered Leonidas’s body, only to hear the alarming cry that the Immortals were approaching. The Spartans fought their way back into the defile and behind the wall, joining the Thespians for a final stand.
According to Herodotus, the Thebans threw down their arms and surrendered, stretching out their hands in supplication. Some were killed in the chaos, but most were taken prisoner and branded with Xerxes’ mark as a sign of distinction. This act of surrender has been debated by historians, considering Herodotus’s pro-Athenian bias and Thebes’ subsequent submission to Persia.
Xerxes’ men pressed forward, demolishing part of the wall. Joined by the Immortals, the Persian forces attacked the last bastion of the Greek defenders. Even as their weapons shattered, the Greeks fought on with hands and teeth, like wounded lions. Eventually, the Persians called back their men and formed ranks of archers. As volleys of arrows darkened the sky, one Spartan named Dienekes famously remarked, “So much the better; we shall fight in the shade.” Arrow after arrow punctured the Greeks’ ragged armor and shields, and the hoplites fell one by one.
The End of the Battle
By midday, the battle was over. Xerxes, surveying the battlefield, ordered the Persian dead to be buried to conceal the extent of their losses. Days later, Xerxes’ army marched past the hillock where Leonidas’s head was mounted on a stake, a grim reminder of the fierce resistance they had faced. Despite their heroism, even the sons of Sparta and the descendant of Heracles could not stand against the Persian titan.
The Aftermath and Legacy
The dramatic last stand of Leonidas and his Spartans became a symbol of doomed heroism against impossible odds. In Sparta, a column was erected with the names of Leonidas and his 300 Spartans, along with Dienekes’ scornful remark. At Thermopylae, a stone lion was erected by the keepers of Demeter’s shrine, inscribed with the words:
“Go, stranger, and to Lacedaemon tell,
That here, obeying her behests, we fell.”
Though Xerxes had won the first round, Greece was not yet conquered. The memory of the heroes of Thermopylae would inspire the Greeks in the battles to come, both on land and at sea.
