The Siege of Yorktown marked the decisive conclusion of a prolonged conflict that served as a pivotal moment in global history. After enduring over five years of fighting during the American Revolutionary War, families and communities were torn apart, and allegiances were divided between those loyal to the British crown and those advocating for an independent United States.
Both sides were fatigued by the war, with British soldiers facing challenges such as long transatlantic journeys, attrition, and diseases. In an effort to regain control in a protracted war, a significant British army retreated to the Yorktown peninsula to await reinforcements for a final offensive push. However, the anticipated reinforcements never materialized.
Ultimately, the outcome of the Siege of Yorktown dealt a significant blow to Britain’s efforts to subdue the colonists and solidified the path towards American independence.
Pre-Battle Preparation
The statue of Comte de Rochambeau in Lafayette Park, Washington DC, depicts the French general who played a crucial role in supporting the Continental Army during the American Revolutionary War. After several years of fighting, a significant portion of the British army, around 7,500 soldiers, retreated to Virginia due to a series of defeats. General Cornwallis led the British forces in Yorktown, where they planned to regroup and resume their campaign against the Americans.
During this time, the French provided vital assistance to the Continental Army, particularly through their powerful fleet, which was a much-needed asset for the Americans. With French support, General Washington aimed to dislodge the British from their fortified position in a decisive battle.
In Virginia, General Lafayette commanded 4,500 French troops, while another 5,500 French soldiers landed in Rhode Island to aid the Americans against the British in New York. Initially considering an attack on New York, General Washington was persuaded by Marshal Rochambeau to focus on confronting the British in Virginia instead.
Upon receiving support from Admiral De Grasse, who commanded the French fleet in the West Indies, Washington had to decide whether to continue with the plan to attack New York or shift his focus to Yorktown. With assurances from the Spanish to protect French merchant ships, De Grasse was able to bring his entire fleet to engage the British forces.
Cornwallis’s superior, Sir Henry Clinton, was displeased with Cornwallis’s strategy and there was confusion regarding the interpretation of orders. Clinton was uncertain about the feasibility of resupplying Yorktown. Despite this, he dispatched a fleet to protect the Virginian coast and provide support to Cornwallis’s troops.
During the Battle of Virginia Capes in 1781, Admiral Thomas Graves led the British fleet against the Spanish fleet and found themselves outnumbered but the battle resulted in no clear victor with minimal casualties on both sides. De Grasse successfully safeguarded the Chesapeake supply line, forcing Graves to retreat without causing significant damage.
Subsequently, the British reinforcement fleet departed, while the Franco-American forces received additional support. De Grasse’s arrival in the Chesapeake Bay with silver to pay American soldiers was crucial due to financial constraints faced by the Continental Congress.
By September 5, 1781, the French fleet controlled the entrance to the Chesapeake until October, prompting Washington to take action swiftly. Washington initiated a race against time to reach Yorktown before the French fleet departed, employing deception tactics to mislead the British forces in New York.
Lafayette was instructed to engage the British to distract them while Washington and the Franco-American army advanced towards Yorktown. By the time Washington arrived, the British forces were cornered and trapped on the Yorktown Peninsula.
The Attack
A sign at Yorktown marks the location of the British defenses during the Revolutionary War. By September 26, the French and American forces had gathered near Williamsburg, about 13 miles from Yorktown, with a combined force of nearly 20,000 soldiers. Cornwallis found himself surrounded by land forces to the west and the French fleet to the east.
To break through the well-fortified British defenses at Yorktown, Rochambeau proposed a strategy involving digging parallel trenches closer to the enemy positions under the cover of darkness. By October 9, 73 artillery pieces were positioned in the trenches, bombarding Yorktown daily.
Despite the relentless bombardment, the British defenses held firm, prompting the Franco-American forces to build another trench closer to the town walls. The path was obstructed by two British redoubts, which were eventually assaulted on the evening of October 14. Redoubt 10 was captured by American troops led by Alexander Hamilton, while redoubt 9 was taken by French soldiers commanded by Christian Marquis de Deux-Ponts after fierce hand-to-hand combat.
After clearing the redoubts, the second parallel was quickly constructed and cannons were brought closer to the enemy position. The following day, 350 British soldiers advanced to sabotage the artillery by spiking the cannons with iron spikes. This surprise attack caught the Americans off guard, resulting in six cannons being spiked before the French forces repelled the British. However, the cannons were promptly repaired.
Following this unsuccessful attempt by the British, Cornwallis realized that his situation was unsustainable. Harsh weather conditions and a lack of boats made it impossible to escape via the river. The increasing number of sick and wounded soldiers, along with the growing risk of disease from decaying horses, forced Cornwallis to acknowledge the dire circumstances.
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Surrender
On the morning of October 17, during the American bombardment, a British drummer appeared on the walls of Yorktown, signaling a request for a meeting by beating his drum. Accompanied by an officer carrying a white flag, the drummer was taken behind the Franco-American lines blindfolded to announce the British decision to surrender. The fighting ceased for the rest of the day.
The following morning, on October 18, the terms of surrender were negotiated. Cornwallis had hoped for an honorable surrender that would allow the British to march out with their flags and weapons. However, Washington refused this request, citing the British denial of the same honor to the Americans in Charleston the previous year. Consequently, Cornwallis had no choice but to agree to an unconditional surrender, relinquishing British flags and surrendering all his troops as prisoners.
Cornwallis did not attend the surrender ceremony, claiming illness, and instead sent Brigadier General Charles OHara in his place. On October 19, the British and Hessian soldiers marched out of Yorktown without their flags, looking disheartened. They passed between the French and American forces and laid down their weapons.
Consequences
The casualties during the Siege of Yorktown were relatively low for both sides. The British had 142 killed and 326 wounded, while the Americans and French had 88 killed and 301 wounded. However, the British suffered a significant loss as an entire army of 7,416 soldiers was captured or went missing.
The defeat at Yorktown dealt a severe blow to the British war effort, leading to a realization that they could not regain control. When news of Cornwallis’ surrender reached London, Prime Minister Lord Frederick North famously exclaimed, “Oh God. It is all over. It is all over.”
Following the events at Yorktown, on March 5, 1782, the British parliament passed a bill allowing peace negotiations with America. Lord North resigned from his position just 15 days later.
The Siege of Yorktown marked a crucial turning point in the American Revolutionary War, where the combined forces of the Americans and the French effectively ended British hopes of victory.
Though the formal treaty would take two more years to be finalized, the Siege of Yorktown is widely regarded as the moment when the United States secured its independence.
